





_ 




















































































THE 



PRINCIPLES 



OF 



LATIN GRAMMAR 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
GRAMMARS EXTANT, WITH AN 



APPENDIX. 



USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 

LATF PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES FN THE ALBANY ACADEMY; AUTHOR OF THE 

SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH, ON TEE 

SAME PLAN, ETC. ETC. 



SIXTY-SECOND EDITION— REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



NEW YOKE: 

PRATT, WOODFORD, FARMER & BRACE, 

NO. 4 CORTLAKDT STREET. 

1856. 






Entered, according to Act of Confess, in tne Year One Thousand Eight Hun 
dred and Fifty-three, by PETEK BULLIONS, D.D., in the Clerk's Offica 
of the Northern District of Now Yo<-\.. 






PREFACE. 



In the study of any language, the foundation of success must be laid in 
a thorough acquaintance with its principles. This being once attained, 
future progress becomes easy and rapid. To the student of language, there- 
fore, a good Grammar, which must be his constant companion, is of all hi3 
books the most important. Such a work, to be really valuable, ought to 
be simple in its arrangement and style, so as to be adapted to the capacity 
of youth, for whose use it is designed ; comprehensive, and accurate, so as 
to be a sufficient and certain guide in the most difficult as well as in easy 
cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered familiar by numer- 
ous examples and exercises. 

The fundamental principles are nearly the same in all languages. So 
tar as Grammar is concerned, the difference lies chiefly in the minor de- 
tails — in the forms and inflections of their words, and in the modes of ex 
pression peculiar to each, usually denominated idioms. It would seem, 
therefore, to be proper, in constructing Grammars for different languages, 
that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be arranged hi the 
same order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the same words. Where 
this is carefully done, the study of the Grammar of one language becomes 
an important aid in the study of another ; — an opportunity is afforded of 
seeing wherein they agree, and wherein they differ, and a profitable exer- 
cise is furnished in comparative or general grammar. But when a Latin 
Grammar is put into the hands of the student, differing widely in its 
arrangement or phraseology from the English Grammar which he had 
previously studied, and afterwards a Greek Grammar different from both, 
not only is the benefit derived from the analogy of the different language; 
in a great measure lost, but the whole subject is made to appear intolerably 
intricate and mysterious. By the publication of this series of Grammars, 
English, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan, this evil is now remedied 
probably as far as it can be done. 

The work here presented to the public, is upon the foundation of Adam's 
Latin Grammar, so long and so well known as a text book in this country. 
The object of the present undertaking was, to combine with all that is 
excellent in the work of Adam, the many important results of subsequent 



IV PREFACE. 

labors in this field ; to supply its defects ; to bring the whole up to that 
point which the present state of classical learning requires, and to give it 
such a form as to render it a suitable part of the series formerly project ed. 
In accomplishing this object, the author has availed himself of every aid 
within his reach, and no pains have been spared to render this work as 
complete as possible in every part. His acknowledgments are due for the 
assistance derived from the excellent works of Scheller, Crombie, Zumpt, 
Andrews & Stoddard, and many others, on the whole or on separate parts 
of this undertaking; and also for many hints kindly furnished by dis- 
tinguished teachers in this country. As in the other grammars, so here, 
the rules and leading parts which should be first studied, are printed in 
larger type ; and the filling up of this outline is comprised in observations 
and notes under them, made easy of reference by the sections and numbers 
prefixed. The whole is now committed to the judgment of an intelligent 
public, in the hope that something has been done to smooth the path of the 
learner in the successful prosecution of his studies, and to subserve the 
interests of both English and Classical literature in this country. 

REVISED EDITION. 

New plates having become necessary for this work, the opportunity has 
been embraced of thoroughly revising and improving it. The rules, defi- 
nitions, and leading parts, with very few exceptions, remain just as they 
were ; but still, some things deemed important have been added in many 
places in the form of new Observations, or of additions to the former ones. 
On this account, the pages of this edition do not correspond to those of 
former editions ; but this will occasion no difficulty, as the Sections, Obser- 
vations, <fcc, are arranged and numbered as they were before. Besides this 
mode of reference which is still retained, the simpler method, by a running 
series of numbers, from first to last, as in the English Grammars, has been 
added. A leading object kept constantly in view, in the revision of this 
work, as well as of the Greek Grammar just completed, has been, to bring 
about a still greater uniformity in the works composing this series, and 
to indicate more fully and distinctly wherein the languages agree, and 
wherein they differ. The additions that have been made to this work, 
amount in all to about twenty-eight pages, and no labor or expense has 
been spared to render the work in all respects more worthy of that favor 
with which it has already been received. 
Ycic York, June, 1853. 



INDEX. 



A. 

PAGE 

A 1 lative, meaning of, 13 

construction of, 243 

governed by nouns, . . . 243 

by adjectives, 244 

by com p. degree,. . 244 

by verbs, 246 

by passive verbs,. . . 252 

variously, 247 

Accidents of the noun, 10 

Accusative, meaning of, 12 

construction of, 240 

governed by verbs,. . . . 240 

by passive verbs,. . . 252 
by prepositions,. . 263, 264 

variously, 242 

and genitive 247, 248 

and dative, 249 

and accusative, 250 

and ablative, 251 

Adjectives, 48 

Root of, 13 

of first and second decl. 49 

of third, 51 

irregular,. 54 

exercises on, 56 

numeral, 57 

cardinal, 57 

ordinal, 60 

comparison of, 63 

Rules for, 63, 64 

irregular, &c 65 

derivation of, 67 

distributive, 60 

Multiplicative, 62 

construction of, 209 

A "verbs, signification of, 196 

derivation of, 197 

comparison of, 198 

construction of, 261 

cases governed by, ... . 262 



PAGE 

Analysis of sentences, 294 

examples of, 297 

Apposition, substantives in,.. 207 

Archaism, 291 

Arrangement, Latin, 291 

General principles of, 292 
B. 

Beginners, directions for, 299 

C. 

Case, 12 

Cases, government of,. 205 

Csesural pause, 321 

Cause, manner, and instrument, 255 

Circumstances, construction of, 254 

of limitation, 254 

of cause, manner, <fcc . 255 

of place, 256 

of time, 258 

of measure, 259 

of price, 260 

Concord, of, 207 

Conjugations, of, 109 

General remarks on,. . . 162 

First, 119 

irregular, 167 

Second, 128 

irregular, 168 

Third, ' 136 

irregular, 171 

Fourth, 146 

irregular, 179 

1st Periphrastic, 163 

2d do 164 

Conjunctions, 203 

construction of, 288 

Consonants, 2 

Construing, Rules for, 300 

D. 

Dative, meaning of, 12 

construction of, 230 

governed by nouns,. . . 231 



INDEX. 



Dative, gove.ned page 

by adjectives, . 231 

by verbs, 233 

by im personals, .... 236 

by the pass, voice,. . 253 

variously, 239 

Datives two, gov'd by verbs, 238 

Declension, Rules for, 13, 14 

First 15 

Exceptions in,. . . . 16 

Greek nouns in,.. 16 

Exercises on, .... 17 

Second, 17 

Exceptions in,. . . 19, 20 

Greek nouns in,. . 21 

Exercises on, 21 

Third, 22 

Observations on,. . 22 
Examples of,. . . . 23-25 

Exercises on, 26 

Genders in, 27 

Exceptions in, ... . 30 

Greek nouns in,.. 33 

Fourth, 33 

Exceptions in, ... . 34 

Observations on,. . 35 

Exercises on, ... . 36 

Fifth 36 

Exercises on, 37 

Deponent verbs, 154 

irregular, 180 

Derivatives and compounds, 

quantity of, 315 

special rules for, 316 

Diphthongs, 1 

E. 

Er-'psis, 290 

Enallage, 290 

Etymologv, 8 

F. 

Feet, simple 317 

compound, 318 

isochronous, 318 

G. 

Gender, of, , 10 

Observations on, 11 

Genitive, meaning of, 12 

construction of, 222 

gov'd by nouns 222 

by adjectives,. . 225 

by verbs, 228 

by passives,. ... 252 



Genitive, governed page 

by adverbs, 262 

variously, 230 

Gerunds, 108 

construction of. 284 

Gerundives, 107 

construction of, 286 

Government, of 221 

Grammar, definition of, 1 

division of, 1 

H. 

Hellenism, 291 

Hyperbaton, 291 

Increment of nouns, 306 

of the 2d decl.... 307 

of the 3d decl.... 307 

of the plural, 308 

of the verb, 309 

Interjections, 202 

construction of, 242 

Irregular nouns, 38 

adjectives, 54 

comparison, 65 

Verbs, 181 

L. 

Letters, 1 

Limitation, circumstances of, 254 
M. 

Marks and characters, 3 

Measure, circumstances of,... 251 

Metre, 319 

different kinds of, 821 

Iambic, 321 

Trochaic 322 

Anapaestic, 323 

Dactylic 323 

Choriambic, 325 

Ionic,. 326 

Metres, compound, 326 

Metres, combination of, in 

Horace, 328 

Metrical key to Odes of Hor- 
ace 329 

Moods, 88 

Indie, tenses of, 92 

construction of,. ... . 266 

Subjunctive, tenses of, 96 

construction of,. . . . 267 

vrith conjunctions, 268 

with relative, 270 

used for imperative, 90 



INDEX. 



VII 



PAGE 

Mcods, Imperative, tenses of, . . 1 00 

construction of, 275 

Infinitive, tenses of,. . . .100 

construction of, ... . 275 

without a subject, 276 

with a subject,. . . 278 

1ST. 

Negatives, construction of,... 261 

Nominative, meaniug of, 12 

construction of, 217 

after the verb, 220 

Notation of numbers, 59 

Nouns, 9 

Accidents of, 10 

Root of e ... 13 

Irregular, 38 

defective, 40 

Nouns, redundant, 46 

Syntax of, 207, 222 

increment of, 306 

Number, j 12 

Numbers, notation of, ; . . . 59 

Numeral adjectives,. ....... 57 

O. 

Orthography, 1 

P. 

Parsing, directions for, 301 

examples of, 302 

Participles, of, 106 

consti'uction of, 282 

case absolute, 283 

Parts of speech, 9 

Person, 10 

Person, and number of verbs, 104 

Place, circumstances of, 256 

Pleonasni, 290 

Prepositions, of, 199 

Observations on, 200 

io composition, 201 

inseparable, 202 

governing the accusa- 
tive,. .. . 263 

the ablative, 263 
the ace. and 

ablative,.. 264 
in composi- 
tion, 264 

Price, circumstances of, 260 

Pronouns, Personal, 68 

Observations on, 69 

Adjective, 72 



Pronouns, page 

Possessive, 73 

Demonstrative, 74 

Observations on, . . 76 

Definite, 77 

Relative, 77 

construction of, 213 

case of, 216 

Interrogative, 78 

Observations on, . . 79 

Indefinite, 80 

Patrial, . 80 

compound, 80 

Pronunciation, 4 

English method of,. . . . 341 

Prosody, 304 

Figures of, 327 

Punctuation, 3 

Q. 

Quantity, of, 6. 304 

General rules for,. . . 6, 304 

Special rules for 306 

of penult svllables, . . . 310 

of final syllables, 312 

of derivatives and com- 
pounds, 315 

R. 

Resolution or analysis, 294 

Examples of,, m 300 

S. 

Scanning, 327 

Stanza, 328 

Supines, of, 108 

construction of, 287 

Syllables, 5 

Syntax, 204 

General principles of, 205 

of cases, Synopsis of, 205 

Parts of, 207 

of the noun, 222 

of the verb, 265 

Figures of, 29? 

T. 

Tenses, of, 91 

of the indicative, 92 

subjunctive,.... 96 

imperative, .... 100 

infinitive, 100 

participles, .... 10>0 

Active, how formed, ... 1 1 C 

Passive, how formed, . . 118 

Connection of, 265 



vm 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Terminations, table of, 14 

Time, circumstances of, 258 

y. 

Verb, 83 

Different kinds of,. . . . 85 

Inflection of, 86 

Voices of, 86 

Observations on, 87 

Moods of, 88 

Tenses of" ;••;••• 91 

of the Indicative, 92 

of the Subjunctive, 96 

of the Imperative, 100 

of the Infinitive,. . 100 

Number and person of, 104 

how formed, 110 

Regular, conjugation of,. 109 

1st conj. Active, 119 

Exercises on, 122 

1st conj. Passive, 124 

Exercises on, 127 

2d conj. Active, 128 

Exercises on,. ... . 131 

2d conj. Passive, 132 

Exercises on, 135 

3d conj. Active, 136 

Exercises on, 141 

3d conj. Passive, 141 

Exercises on, .... 145 

4th conj. Active, 146 

Exercises on, 149 

4th conj. Passive, .... 150 

Exercises on, 153 

Deponent verbs, 154 



Verb, page 

Deponent, lslj jonj 155 

2d do 156 

3d do./. 157 

Verb, deponent, 4th do 158 

Exercises on, 159 

Verbs, Neuter-passives, 160 

compound, 165 

irregular in perf. and 

Sup 166-179 

Irregular, 181 

Su?n, 114 

Exercises on, . 117 

. Defective, 188 

Impersonal, 190 

Exercises on,. . . . 193 

Redundant, , , . 1 94 

Derivatives, 194 

Erequentatives, . . 195 

Inceptives, 195 

Desideratives, 196 

t Diminutives, .... 196 
construction of, with 

Norn. . ; 217 

Special rules for, 218 

Syntax of, 265 

-Increment of, 309 

Versification, 317 

Vocative, meaning of, 13 

construction of,. ... . 242 

Voice, 86 

Vowels, 1 

Vowel sounds, table of, 4 

W. 

Words, 8 



CONTENTS OF THE APPENDIX. 

1. Roman computation of time, 331 

II. Roman names, 334 

III. Divisions of the Roman People, 335 

IV. Divisions of the Roman civil officers, 336 

V. The Roman Army, 336 

VI. Roman Money, Weights, and Measures, 337 

VII. Different ages of Roman Literature, 340 

VIII*. English pronunciation of Latin, 341 



LATIN GEAMMAR. 



1. — Late* Geammae, is tlie art of speaking or 
writing the Latin language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts; namely, Ortho- 
graphy, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST. 






OKTHOGKAP^Y. 



2. — Orthography treats of letters, and the 
mode of combining them into syllables and 
words. 



§ 1. LETTERS. 

3. — A Letter is a mark or character used to represent an 
elementary sound of the human voice. 

The Latin Alphabet consists of twenty-five letters, the same 
in name and form as those of the English Alphabet, but with- 
out the w. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 

4. — A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate sound ; 
and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. In Latin, y is never a consonant as in 
English. * 

5. — The union of two vowels in one sound, is called a Diphthong. Diph- 
thongs are of two kinds, proper and improper. 

1 



2 * LETTERS. § 1 

6. — A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded. 
The Proper Diphthongs in Latin are three, viz : au, eu, ci ; as, aurum, 
eitge, hex. 

7. — An Improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is 
sounded. The Improper Diphthongs in Latin are ae and os, often written 
together, ce, ce ; as, tceda, poena. 

8. — OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Ai and oi are found as diphthongs in proper names from the Greek ; 
as Maia, Troia. 

2. After g and q, and sometimes after s, u before another vowel in 
the same syllable, does not form a diphthong with it, but is to be regarded 
as an' appendage of the preceding consonant, having nearly the force of w, 
as in the English words, linguist, quick, persuade ; thus, lingua, sanguis, 
qui, quo3, quod, quum, suadeo, are pronounced as if written lingwa, sanguis, 
kwi, kivce, kwod, kwum, swadeo. So also after c and h in cui and huic, pro- 
nounced in one syllable, as if written cwi or kwi, and hwic ; also ui after 
a consonant, in such words from the Greek as Harpuia. 

3. Two vowels standing together in different syllables, pronounced in 
quick succession, resemble the diphthong in sound, and, among the poets, 
are often run together into one syllable ; ttius de-in, de-inde, pro-inde, <fcc, 
in two and three syllables, are pronounced in one and two, dein, deinde, 
proinde, &q. 

CONSONANTS. 

9. — A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound, and, in 
a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connection with 
a vowel or diphthong. 

10. — The consonants in Latin are h, c, d,f, g, h,j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v> 
x, z. Of these, eight, viz, p, b, t, d, c, k, q, and g, are called mutes, because 
they interrupt or stop the sound of the voice, as 6 in sub ; — four, viz, »\ m, 
n, r, are called liquids, because of their fluency, or the ease with which 
they flow into other sounds, or, in combiniug with other consonants, are 
changed one for another ; — two are called double consonants, viz, x and z> 
because they are each equivalent to two other consonants ; namely, x to 
cs or gs, and z to ds. The letter j, likewise, is sounded by us as a double 
consonant, equivalent to dg, and in prosody is so considered, because, ex- 
cept in compounds of jugum, it uniformly makes the vowel before it long. 
The ietter s represents a sibilant or hissing sound. The h is only an 
aspirate, and denotes a rough breathing : in prosody, it is not regarded as 



§ 1 LETTERS. 3 

a consonant. The letters k, y, and 2, are used only in words derived from 
the Greek. 

11. — Note, Anciently, the letter^' seems to have been more nearly allied to 
a vowel than to a consonant, and was represented by i ,' thus, ejus, pejus, &c., 
were written eius, peius* &c; and the,;' thus forming a sort of diphthong with 
the preceding vowel, of course made the syllable long; as, ei-vs, pei-us, &c. 
In like manner, u and v were represented by the same letter, namely, v. 

MARKS AND CHARACTERS. 

12. — The marks and characters used in Latin Grammar, or in writing 
Latin, are the following : 

w Placed over a vowel shows it to be short. 

~ Placed over a vowel shows it to be long. 

** Placed over a vowel shows it to be short or long. 

" Is called Dicer esis, and shows that the vowel over which it is placed 
does not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel, but belongs to a dif- 
ferent syllable ; as, aer, pronounced a-er. 

A The circumflex shows that the syllable over which it stands has been 
contracted, and is consequently long, as nuntidrunt for nuntiaverunt, dimi- 
cdssent for dimicavissent ; or that the vowel over which it is placed, has its 
long open sound ; as, pennd. 

s The grave accent is sometimes placed over particles and adverbs, to 
distinguish them from other words consisting of the same letters ; as, quod, 
a conjunction, " that," to distinguish it from quod, a relative, " which." 

' The acute accent is used to mark the accented syllable of a word • as, 
tuba, dom'inus. 

' Apostrophe is written over the place of a vowel cut off from the end 
of a word ; as, men! for mene. 



PUNCTUATION. 






13. — The different divisions of a sentence are marked by certain cha 
racters called Points. 

The modern punctuation in Latin is the same as in English. The marks 
employed are the Comma ( , ) ; Semicolon ( ; ) ; Colon ( : ) ; Period ( . ) ; Inter- 
rogation ( ? ) ; Exclamation ( ! ). 

14. — The only mark of punctuation used by the ancients, was a point (.), 
which denoted pauses of a different length, according as it stood at the 
top, the middle, or the bottom of the line — that at the top denoting the 
shortest, and that at the bottom the longest pause. 



PEONUNCIATIOISr. 



§ 2 



§ 2. PRONUNCIATION * 

15. — The pronunciation of the Latin language prevalent 
among the nations of continental Europe, is greatly preferable 
to the English, both because it harmonizes better with the 
quantity of the language, as settled by the rules of Prosody, 
and because, by giving one simple sound to each vowel, dis- 
tinguishing the short and the long only by the duration of 
sounds, it is much more simple. The sound of the vowels, as 
pronounced alone or at the end of a syllable, is exhibited in 
the following — 

16.— TABLE OF VOWEL AND DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 



Short a 


sounds like 


a 


in 


Jehovah, 


as 


amat. 


Long a 




like 


a 


in 


father, 


as 


fama. 


Short e 




like 


e 


in 


met, 


as 


petere. 


Long e 




like 


e 7 


in 


they, 


as 


docere. 


Short i 




like 


i 


in 


uniform, 


as 


umtas. 


Long I 




like 


i 


in 


machine, 


as 


pinus. 


Short 6 




like 





in 


polite, 


as 


indoles. 


Long 6 




like 





in 


g°> 


as 


pono. 


Short ii 




like 


u 


in 


popular, 


as 


popiilus. 


Long u 




like 


u 


in 


rule, or pure, 


as 


tuba, usu. 


ae or sd 
oe or oe 


j- like 


e 7 


in 


they, 


as 


j Peean. 
( Phoebus 


au 




like 


ou 


in 


our, 


as 


aurum. 


eu 




like 


eu 


in 


feud, 


as 


eurus. 


ei 




like 


i 


in 


ice, 


as 


hei. 



17.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The sound of the vowels a and e remains unchanged in 
all situations. 

2. The sound of i, o, and u, is slightly modified when fol- 



* The ancient pronunciation of the Latin language, cannot now be certainly 
ascertained. The variety of pronunciation in different nations, arises from a 
tendency in all to assimilate it in some measure to their own. But of all 
varieties, that of the English— certainly the farthest of any from the original 
— is, in our opinion, decidedly the worst ; not only from its intricacy and 
want of simplicity, but especially from its conflicting constantly with the set- 
tled quantity of the language, in English, every accented syllable is long, 
and every unaccented one is short. When, therefore, according to the rules 
of English accentuation, the accent falls on a short syllable in a Latin word, 
or does not fall on a long one, in either case, its tendency is, to lead to false 
quantity.— For the English orthoepy of the Latin language, see p. 341. 



§ 3 SYLLABLES. 5 

lowed by a consonant in the same syllable, and is the same, 
whether the syllable is long or short. Thus modified, 

i sounds like i in sit, as mlttit. 

o like o in not, as poterat, forma. 

u like u in tub, as fructus. 

Note. For the sound of u, before another vowel, after g, q, and sometimes 
s, &c., See 8-2. 

3. The consonants are pronounced generally as in the English language. 
and g are hard, as in the words cat, and got, before a, o, and u; and c is 
soft like s ; and g, like^, before e, i, y, ce, and ce. 

4. Tand c, following or ending an accented syllable before i short, fol- 
lowed by a vowel, usually have the sound of sh ; as in nuntius or nuncius, 
patiefitia, socius ; pronounced nunshius, pashienshia, soshius. But t has not 
the sound of sh before l long, as totius ; nor before such Greek words as 
Miltiades, Bceotia, ^Egyptius ; nor when it is preceded by another t, or s, or 
x ; as Bruttii, ostium, mixtio, &c. ; nor, lastly, when ti is followed by the 
termination of the infinitive passive in er, as in nitier, quatier. 

Note. The soft sound of c before e, i, y, ce, and oe, adopted by all European 
nations, is evidently a deviation from the ancient pronunciation, according 
to which c was sounded hard, like k, or the Greek k, in all situations. Ti 
sounding shi is a similar corruption, chiefly English, which it might perhaps 
be well to change by giving ti the same sound in all situations ; as, arti, 
arti-um, arti-bus. 

5. S has always the sharp sound like ss, and never the soft sound like z ; 
or like s in as, peas, dose, &c. ; thus, nos, dorrunos, rupes, arc pronounced as 
if written noss, dominoss, rupess, not nose, dominose, rwpese. 



§ 3. SYLLABLES. 

18. — A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, or so much of it as can be sounded at once. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct vowel 
sounds. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trissyllable. 

A word of many syllables is called a Polysyllable. 

19. — In a word of many syllables, the last is called the final 
syllable ; the one next the last is called the penult, and the sylla- 
ble preceding that is called the antepenult. 



6 SYLLABLES. § 3 

20. — The Figures which affect the orthography of words, are 
as follows : 

1st. Prosthesis prefixes a letter or syllable to a word ; as, gnatus for 
ndtus, tetulit for tulit. 

2d. Epenthcsis inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a word ; as, 

navita for nauta, Timolus for Tmolus. 
3d Par agog e adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; as, amarier 

for amari, &c. 
4th Aphozresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of a 

word ; as, brevis't or brevist for brevis est ; rhdbo for arrhdbo. 
5th. Syncope takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word ; as, 

07 actum for oraculum ; amdrim, for amaverim ; deum for deoru^t. 

6th. Apocope takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; as, 
Antoni for Antonii, meri for ?nene, die for dice. 

*7th. Antithesis substitutes one letter for another: as, olli for illi ; vult t 

vullisy for volt, voltis, contractions for volit, volitis. 
8th. Metathesis changes the order of letters in a word ; as, pistris for 

pristis. 
9th Tmesis separates the parts of a compound word by inserting 

another word between them ; as, qua> me cumquc vocant terra?, for 

quaicumque me, &a. 
10 th. Anastrophe inverts the order of words; as, dare circum for circum- 

dare. 

QUANTITY AND ACCENT. 

21. — Quantity is the measure of a syllable in respect of the 
time required in pronouncing it. 

In respect of quantity, a syllable is either long or short ; 
and a long syllable is considered equal to two short ones. 

22. — General Rules. 

1 . A diphthong is always long ; as, aurum, poe-na. 

2. A vowel before another vowel is short ; as, vi-a, de-us. 

3. A vowel before two consonants or a double consonant is 
long ; as, consul, penna, traxit. 

4. A vowel before a mute and a liquid is common ; i. e., 
sometimes long and sometimes short; as, cerebrum, or cert 
brum. 

[For special rules on this subject, see Prosody.") 



§ 3 SYLLABLES. 7 

23. — Accent is a special stress or force of voice on a parti 
cular syllable of a word, by which that syllable is distinguished 
from the rest. 

Every word of more than one syllable has an accent ; as Deus, homo, 
dom'mus, tolerdbilis. 

The last syllable of a word never has the accent. In a word of two 
syllables, the accent is always on the first. In a word of three or more 
syllables, if the penult is long, the acceut is on the penult ; as, sermonis, 
amaremus ; but if the penult is short, the accent is on the antepenult ; as, 
fan I is, ducere, pectoris, pectoribus. 

24. — An enclitic syllable {que, ve, ne, <fcc.), being considered, in pronun- 
ciation, part of the word to which it is annexed, generally changes the place 
of the accent by increasing the number of syllables ; as, virum, virumque ; 
dom'inus, dominusve. 

25. — A word of one syllable is properly without an accent ; but if an 
enclitic is annexed, it becomes a dissyllable, and takes the accent on the 
first syllable ; as, tu, tune. 

26. — In English, an accented syllable is always long, or rather the ac- 
cent makes it long ; but in Latin, the accent makes no change in the quan- 
tity of its syllable, and, except in the penult, is as often on a short, as on a 
long syllable ; as, fa 'ciles, pe'tere, virum. 

Note 1. These rules respecting accent, in connection with the general rules 
for quantity, will be sufficient to guide the pupil in accenting words, without 
the artificial aid of marking the accented syllables. Where the quantity of the 
penult is not ascertained by the preceding rules (22), it will be marked in this 
work. 

Note 2. In reading Latin, it is important, as much as possible, to distinguish 
accent from quantity — a matter not without difficulty to those accustomed 
to a language m which accent and quantity always coincide. It should be 
remembered that in Latin, the accent does not make a syllable long as in 
English, neither does the want of it make the syllable short. Homines, for 
example, should not he pronounced no 'mines ; and care should be taken to 
distinguish in reading the verbs le'go and le'go ; — the noun pbp'ulus (the 
people) from po'pidus (a poplar) ; — or the verbs fu'ris, legis, regis, from the 
genitives fu'ris, legis, re'gis. The accented short syllable should be pro- 
nounced with greater force of voice, but be preserved short still ; and the 
long syllable, whether accented or not, should be made long. 



OF WORDS. § 4 

PART SECOND. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

27. — Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de- 
rivations. . 

§ 4. WORDS. 

28. — Words are certain articulate sounds used 
by common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. In respect of Formation, words are either 
Primitive or Derivative / Simple or Compound. 

A Primitive word is one that comes from no other ; as 
puer, bonus, pater. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from anothei 
word ; as, pueritia, boriitas, paternus. 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other 
word ; as, plus, doceo, verto. 

A Compound word is one made up of two or more simple 
words ; as implies, dedoceo, animadverto. 

2. In respect of Form,, words are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes 
of form or termination, to express the different relations of 
gender, number, case, &c, usually termed, in Grammar, 
Accidents. 

An Indeclinable word is one that undergoes no change of , 
form. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words 
are divided into different classes, called Parts of 

Speech. 



§ 5, 6 PARTS OF SPEECH. — OF THE NOUN. 9 

§ 5. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

29. — The Parts of Speech in the Latin language 
are eight, viz: 

1. Noun or Substantive, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, declined. 

2, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, Conjunc- 
tion, undeclined. 

30. — Any part of speech used simply as a word, and spoken 
of, is regarded as a noun (271). Thus used, it is indeclinable, 
and in the neuter sender. 



§ 6. THE NOUN. 

31. — A Noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing ; as Cicero, Poma, homo, liber. 

32. — Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Com- 
mon. 

1. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an 
individual only ; as, Cicero, Aprllis, Poma. 

To this class belong, 

Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage or family; as, 
Pri amides, the son of Priam. 

Gentile, or Patrial, which denote one's country ; as, Romanics, Gallus. 

Obs. A proper noun applied to more than one, becomes a common noun ; 
as, duodecim Cczsares, the twelve Caesars. 

2. A Common Noun is a name applied to all 
things of the same sort ; as, vir, a man ; domus, a 
house ; liber, a book. 

Note. A Proper noun is the name of an individual only, and is used to 
distinguish that individual from all others of the same class. A Common 
noun is the name of a class of objects, and is equally applicable to all the in- 
dividuals contained in it. 

33. — Under this class may be ranged, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify manv in the 
singular number ; as, populus, a people ; exercltus, an army. 



10 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUJS r . § 7 

2. Abstract noicns, or the names of qualities ; as, bonitas, goodness ; dul- 
cedo, sweetness. 

3. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the signification 
of the nouns from which they are derived ; as, libellus, a little book, from 

liber, a book. 

4. AmpUficative nouns, or those which denote an increase in the signifi- 
cation of the nouns from which they are derived ; as, capito, a person hav- 
ing a large head, from caput, the head. 



§ 7. ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUNS. 

34. — To Latin nouns belong Person, Gender, 
Number, and Case. 

1. PERSON. 

35. — Person, in Grammar, is the distinction of 
nouns as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, 
the person or thing addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken of. Hence, 

There are three persons, called First, Second, 
and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker 
or writer ; as, Ego ille consul qui verbo ci'ves in exilium ejicio. 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person 
or thing addressed ; as, Catillna, perge quo coepisti. 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person 
or. thing spoken of; as, Tempus fugit. 

Note. Person has nothing to do either with the form of a noun, or with 
its meaning, but simply with the manner in which it is used. Hence, the 
same noun may at one time be in the first person; at another, in the second ; 
and at another, in the third. 

2. GENDER. 

36. — Gender means the distinction of nouns 
with regard to Sex. 

37. — There are three Genders, the Masculine, 
the Feminine, and the Neuter. 

38. — Of some nouns, the gender is determined by their signi- 
fication ; — of others, by their termination. 



§ 7 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. 11 

39. — The Masculine gender belongs to all nouns which de- 
note the male sex. 

40. — The Feminine gender belongs to all nouns which denote 
the female sex. 

41. — The Neuter gender belongs to all nouns which are 
neither masculine nor feminine. 

42. — Nouns which denote both males and females, are said to 
be of the Common gender ; i. e., they are both masculine and 
feminine. 

43. — Nouns denoting things without sex, and which are 
sometimes of one gender, and sometimes of another, are said 
to be Doubtful. 

44. — The gender of nouns not determined by their significa- 
tion, is usually to be ascertained by their termination, as will 
be noticed under each declension. 

45.— GENEEAL OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

1. Nouns denoting brute animals, especially those whose 
sex is not easily discerned or but rarely attended to, com- 
monly follow the gender of their termination. Such are the 
names of wild beasts, birds, fishes, insects, &c. 

2. A proper name often follows the gender of the common 
noun under which it is comprehended ; thus, 

The names of months, winds, rivers, and mountains, are 
masculine, because nzensis, ventus, fluvius, mons, are mascu- 
line. 

The names of countries, towns, trees, and ships, are femi- 
nine, because terra, urbs, arbor, navis, are feminine. 

To these, however, there are many exceptions. 

3. Some nouns are masculine and feminine both in sense 
and grammatical construction ; as, adolescens, a young man 
or woman ; Afflnis, a relation by marriage ; dux, a leader. 

Some nouns are masculine or feminine in sense, but mascu- 
line only in grammatical construction; i. e., they have an 
adjective word always in the masculine gender ; such as, Arti- 
fex, an artist \fur, a thief; senex, an old person; &c. 

Some nouns are masculine or feminine in sense, but femi- 
nine only in grammatical construction ; i. e., they have an 
adjective word always in the feminine gender ; such as, copice, 
forces, troops ; custodial, guards ; operce, labourers ; &c. 

4. Some nouns denoting persons, are neuter, both in termi- 



12 ACCIDENTS OF THE NOUN. § 7 

nation and construction ; as, Acroama, a jester ; Auxilia, auxi- 
liary troops ; mancipium., or servilium, a slave. 

5. Some nouns distinguish the masculine and feminine by a 
difference of termination ; as, Victor, victrix ; ultor, ultrix ; 
coquus, coqua. Some names of animals distinguish the two 
sexes by different forms ; as, Agnus, agna ; cervus, cerva ; 
columbus, columba ; gallus, galllna, &c. In some cases, the 
words are altogether different ; as, taurus, a bull ; vacca, a 
cow. But, in general, the male and the female are expressed 
by the same term ; passer, sparrow ; corvus, a raven ; fells, a 
cat ; vulpes, a fox ; cdnis, a dog ; homo, a man. 

3. NUMBER. 

46. — Number is that property of a noun by 
which it expresses one, or more than one. 

47. — Latin nouns have two numbers, the Sin- 
gular and the Plural. The Singular denotes 
one; the Plural, more than one. 

48. — Some nouns in the plural form, denote only one ; as, 
A thence, Athens ; others signify one or more ; as, nuptice, a 
marriage or marriages. 

4. CASE. 

49. — Case is the state or condition of a noun 
with respect to the other words in a sentence. 

50. — Latin nouns have six cases, the Nominative, 
Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Abla- 
tive. 

1. The Nominative case, for the most part, denotes the name 
of an object simply, or as that of which something is affirmed. 

2. The Genitive connects with the name of an object, the 
idea of origin, possession, or fitness. 

3. The Dative represents the thing named, as that to which 
sumething is added, or to, or for which something is said or 
dono. I . 

4. The Accusative represents the thing named, as affected 
or acted upon by something else, and also, as the object to 
which something tends or relates. 



§ 8 DECLENSION. 13 

5. The Vocative is used when persons or things expressed 
by the noun, are addressed. 

6. The Ablative represents the thing named, as that from 
which something is separated, or taken ; or, as that by or ivith 
which something is done, or exists. 

51. — All the cases, except the nominative, are called Oblique 
cases. 

52. — The signs of the oblique cases, or the prepositions by 
which they are usually rendered into English, are the follow- 
ing, viz: Genitive, of; Dative, to or for ; Vocative, 0; Abla- 
tive, with, from, in, by, &c, as in the following scheme : 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

Abl. w 


\th,fr 


Singular. 

a king, 

of a king, 

to or for a king, 

a king, 

king, 

om,in,orby, a king. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat, 

Ace, 

Voc, 

Abl. w 


ith,from, 
ON. 


iral. 

kings, 

of kings, 

to or for kings, 

kings, 

kings, 

in, or by, kings. 




8 8. DEC] 


.ENSI 





53. — Declension is the mode of changing the 
terminations of nouns, &c. 

54. — In Latin, there are five declensions, called 
the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth. 

55. — The declensions are distinguished from one 
another by the termination of the genitive sin- 
gular; thus, 

The first declension has the genitive singular in -ce, 

The second " " in -i, 

The third " " in -is, 

The fourth " " in -us, 

The fifth " " in -ei. 

56. — All that part of a noun, or of an adjective, which pre- 
cedes the termination of the genitive singular, is called the 
Root. All that follows the root, in any case or number, is 
i the Case-enrlinn, or Termination. 



14 



DECLENSION. 



§8 



57.— GENERAL RULES FOR THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
native, accusative, and vocative, alike in both 
numbers, and these cases, in the plural, end al- 
ways in a. 

2. The vocative, for the most part in the sin- 
gular, and always in the plural, is like the nomi- 
native. 

3. The dative and the ablative plural are alike. 

4. Proper names for the most part want the 
plural. 

The difference between these declensions will be seen at 
one view in the following : 

58.— TABLE OF TERMINATIONS. 



N. 

a. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 



First. 

-a, 
-ae, 

— 93, 

-am, 

-a, 
-a. 



Second. 

M. N. 

-us, -er, -urn. 

~h 

-6, 

-urn, -urn, 

-e, -er, -urn, 

-o. 



Singular. 

Third. 
M. 

j-is, 
|-em, 

l-e, or L 
Plural. 



Fourth. 



N. 



M. 

-US, 
-US, 

-ul, 

•urn, 
us, 
-u. 



N. 

-ft 

-us, 
-u, 

-ft 
-ft 

-U. 



Fifth. 

-es, 

-ei', 

-ei, 

-em, 

-es, 

-e. 



-33, 


rt 


-a, 


-es, -a, -la, 


-us, -ua, 


-es, 


•arum, 


-orum, 




-um,-ium, 


-uum, 


-erum 


-is, 


-is, 




-ibus, 


-ibus,oriibus, 


-ebus, 


-as, 


-OS, 


-a, 


-es, -a, -ia, 


-us, -ua, 


-es, 


-33, 


-1, 


-a, 


-es, -a, — ia, 


-us, -ua, 


-es, 


-is. 


-is. 




-Ibus. 


-lbus.orubus. 


-ebus. 



N. 
G. 
D. 

Ac. 
V. 
Ab. 

59. — The terminations of the nominative singular in the 
third declension, being numerous, are omitted in the table ; 
also those of the vocative, which, in this declension, is always 
like the nominative. The terminations of the genitive, da- 
tive, and ablative neuter, are the same as the masculine. 



§9 



FIRST DECLENSION. 



15 



§ 9. FIRST DECLENSION. 

60. — The first declension lias four terminations 
of the nominative singular: two feminine, a, ej 
and two masculine, aa, es. 

Latin nouns end only in a ; the rest are Greek. 

TERMINATIONS. 





Singular. 


Plural. 






Nom. -a, 


Nom. 


-83, 






Gen. -83, 


Gen. 


-arum, 




Bat. -ae, 


Dat. 


-is, 






Ace. -am, 


Ace. 


-as, 






Voc. -a, 


Voc. 


-83, 






Abl. -a, 


Abl. 


-is. 






Penna, a feather, — later, a pen. 


Fern. 






Singular. 


Plural. 




N. 


peniiia, a pen, 


N. penn-ae, 




pens, 


G. 


penn-ag, of a pen, 


G. perm-arum, 


of pens, 


D. 


penn-83, to or for a pen, 


B. penn-is, 


to or for pens, 


Ac. 


perm-am, a pen, 


Ac. penn-as, 




pens, 


V. 


penn-a, pen, 


V. penn-as, 




pens, 


Ah 


penn-a, with a pen. 
Via, a wa 


Ab. penn-is, 
y. Fern. 




with pens. 




Singular. 


Plural. 




N. 


vi-a, a way, 


N. vi-aa, 




ways, 


G. 


vi-ae, of a way, 


G. vi-arum, 




of ways, 


D. 


vi-ae, to a way, 


D. vi-is, 




to ways, 


Ac. 


vi-am, a way, 


Ac. vi-as, 




ways, 


V. 


vi-a, way, 


V. vi-ae, 




ways, 


Ab 


. vi-a, with, &c, a way. 


Ab. vi-is, 


with, 


&c, ways. 



JSvte. The words declined as examples in this and the other declensions, 
are not divided into syllables, and the hyphen (-) is never to be regarded as 
a division of syllables* but only as separating the root from the termination ; 
as penn-a, agr-i, &c. 

In like manner decline : 

Ara, an altar ; Sella, a seat; Tuba, a trumpet ; Litera, a letter. 
ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Ala, a wing. 

Area, a chest. 

Casa, a cottage. 

Causn, a cause. 



Eaba, a bean. 
Hora, an hour. 
Men.-a, a table. 
Norma, a rule. 



Ripa, a bank. 

Turba, a crowd. 

Unda, a wave. 

Virga, a rod. 



16 FIRST DECLENSION. § 9 

61.— EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

1 . Nouns in a, denoting appellations of men, as pincerna, a 
butler ; names of rivers ; (45-2,) likewise Hadfia, the Hadria- 
tic ; cometa, a comet ; planeta, a planet ; and sometimes talpa, 
a mole ; and dama, a fallow-deer, are masculine. Pascha, the 
passover, is neuter. 

EXCEPTIONS IN CASE. 

2. The Genitive Singular. — The ancient Latins sometimes 
formed the genitive in ai ; as, aula, a hall ; Gen. aulai ; — some- 
times in as; as, mater -familias, the mother of a family, (See 
96-9). 

8. The Accusative Singular. — Greek nouns in a, have some- 
times an in the accusative singular ; as, Maian, Ossan. 

4. The Dative and Ablative Plural. — The following nouns 
have abus instead of is, in the dative and ablative plural, to 
distinguish them from masculine nouns in ws, of the second 
declension, viz : 

Asina, a she ass. Filia, a daughter. 

Dea, a goddess. Mtila, a she mule. 

Equa, a mare. Nata, a daughter. 

Several others are found in inscriptions and in ancient au- 
thors. Still, except dea and filia, notwithstanding the ambi- 
guity, they generally prefer the termination is. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

62. — Greek nouns in as, es, and <?, are declined 
as follows, in the singular number: — 

./Eneas, JEneas. Anchises, Anchises. Penelope, Penelope. 



N. Anchis-es, N. Penelop-e, 

G. Anchis-ae, G. Penelop-es, 

D. Anchis-ae, D. Penelop-e, 

Ac. Anchis-en, Ac. Penelop-en, 

V. Anchis-e, V. Penelop-e, 

Ab. Anchis-e. A b. Penelop-e. 

Iiike JEneas, decline Boreas, the north wind ; Midas, a king of Phrygia ; 
- — also, Gorgias, Messias. 

Like Anchises, decline Alcldcs, a name of Hercules; cometes, a comet 
- — also, Priomides, Tydides, dynastes, satrapes. 



A 7 ". jEne-as, 
G. jEne-se, 
D. jEne-ae, 
Ac. iEne-am, or an, 
V. ^Ene-a, 
Ab. iEne-a. 



§ 10 SECOND DECLENSION. 17 

Like Penelope, decline Circe, a famous sorceress ; Cybele, the mother of 
the gods; epitome, an abridgment; grammatice, grammar; — also, aloe, 
crambe, Circe, Danue, Phoenlce. 

Obs. 1. When the plural of proper names occurs, it is like 
the plural of penna; thus, Atrida, Atridarum, &c. 

Obs. 2. Nouns in es have sometimes a in the vocative, more 
rarely a. Nouns in sles have sta. They also sometimes have 
the accusative in em, and the ablative in a. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIRST DECLENSION. 

[The words in the following exercises will be found in No. 60.] 

1. Tell the case and number of the following words, and trans- 
late them accordingly. — Penna, pennam, pennarum, pennis, 
penna, pennae ; — aram, aris ; sellae, sella, sella, sell arum ; tubis, 
tubam, tubae ; litera, literarum, pennis, aras, tubas, Uteris ; — 
Penelopes, Penelopen, ^Enean, Anchises, Anchisae, ^Enea. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin : — The pen, of 
pens, with pens, from a pen, in a pen, by pens ; from the altars ; 
of a trumpet ; with letters ; a seat ; O altar ; the seat of Pene- 
lope ; of iEneas ; with Anchises ; a trumpet ; from the altar ; 
to a seat ; with a pen ; of the altars; &c, ad libitum. 



§ 10. SECOND DECLENSION. 

63. — The Second Declension lias seven termi- 
nations of the nominative singular : namely, 

Five masculine, er, ir, ur, us, and os. 

Two neuter, um and on. 

Of these terminations, os and on are Greek; 
the rest are Latin. 



TERMINATIONS. 
Masculine. Neuter. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plura 

iV r . -er,-ir,-ur,-us, N. -I, 
G. -I, G. -drum 

D. -6, D. -is, 

Ac.-mn, Ac. -6s, 

V. -er,-ir,-ur,-e, V. -I, 
A 6.-0. Ab. -is, 



N. -um, N. -a 

G. -I, G. -orum, 



D. -6, D. -is, 

Ac. -um, Ac. -k, 

V. -um, V. -a, 

Ab.-o. Ab.-ls. 



18 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



10 



64. — Nouns in er, ir, and ur, add i in the genitive ; but us and um are 
changed into i. The only nouns in ir are vir, and its compounds duumviri, 
trevlri, <fcc. The only word in ur of this declension, is the masculine gender 
of the adjective sdtur, full. All these are declined like puer. 

Puer, a boy, Masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


N. puer, a boy, 


N. puer-i, boys. 


G. puer-i, of a boy, 


G. puer-orum, • of boys, 


D. puer-o, to, or for a boy, 


D. puer-is, to or for boys. 


Ac. puer-um, a boy, 


Ac. puer-os, ooys, 


V. puer, boy, 


V. puer-i, boys, 


Ab. puer-o, with, &c., a boy. 


Ab. puer-is, with, &c, boys. 



65. — All the nouns in er declined like puer, are the compounds of fero 
and gero ; as, Lucifer, the morning star ; armiger, an armor bearer : also 
the nouns adulter, an adulterer ; Celtiber, a Celtiberian ; Iber, a Spaniard ; 
Liber, Bacchus ; socer, a father-in-law ; vesper, the evening ; and sometimes 
Midciber, a name of Vulcan : also the plural liberi, children. 

Words in er, ir, and ur, it is probable, originally ended in erus, irus, and 
urus ; and hence, in some words, both forms are still found ; as, socZrus 
and socer. 

66. — Rule 1. All other nouns in er, lose e in the 
root, by syncope, when the termination is added ; as. 

Liber, a book, Masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


JV. liber, 


N. libr-i, 


Ager, 


a field. 


G. libr-i, 


G. libr-orum, 


Aper, ( 


x wild boar. 


I), libr-o, 


D. libr-is, 


Culter, 


a knife. 


Ac. libr-um, 


Ac. libr-os, 


Magister, 


a master. 


V. liber, 


V. libr-i, 


Auster, the 


south wind. 


Ab. libr-o. 


Ab. libr-is. 


Cancer, 


a crab. 


67. — Rule 


2. Nouns in u 


s, have the 


vocative 


in e ; as, ventus, vente. 








Dominus, a lord, 


Masc. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. domm-us, 


N. domin-i, 


Ventus, 


the wind, 


G. domin-i, 


G. domin-orum, 


Oculus, 


the eye. 


D. domin-o, 


D. domin-is. 


Annus, 


a year. 


Ac. domin-um, 


Ac. domm-os, 


Fluvius, 


a river. 


V. domin-e, 


V. domin-i, 


Hortus, 


a garden. 


Ah. domin-o. 


Ab. dotnm-is. 


Radius, 


a ray. 



§10 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



19 



Regnum, a kingdom, Neut. 



Singular. 


Plural. 




Thus decline : 


N". regn-um, N. 


regn-a, 




Antrum, 


a cave. 


G. regn-i, 


G. 


regn-o rum. 


Astrum, 


a star. 


D. regn-o, 


D. 


regn-is, 




Donum, 


a gift. 


Ac. regn-um, Ac. 


regn-a, 




Jugum, 


a yoke. 


V. regn-um, V. 


regn-a, 




Saxum, 


a stone. 


Ab. regn-o. 


Ab 


regn-is. 




Pomum, 


an a 2) pie. 




PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. 




Arbiter, 


a judge. 


Folium, 


a leaf. Socer, a 


father-in-law. 


Bellum, 


war. 


Gladius, 


a sword. Telum, 


a dart. 


Cadus, 


a cask. 


Lupus, 


a wolf. T5rus, 


a couch. 


Cervus, 


a stag. 


Mums, 


a wall. Tectum, 


the roof. 


Collum, 


the neck. 


Nidus, 


a nest. Truncus, 


the trunk 


Equus, 


a horse. 


Ovum, 


an egg. Velum, 


a sail. 


Faber, 


an artist. 


Praelium, 


a battle. Vadum, 


a ford. 


Ficus, f., 


afigtree. 


Ramus, 


a branch. Votum, 


a vovj. 



68.— EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 

Exc. 1. Of nouns ending in us, the names of plants, towns, 
islands, and precious stones, with few exceptions, are feminine, 
(45-2.) 

Obs. In many cases, where the name of a tree ends in us, 
fern., there is a form in um denoting the fruit of the tree ; as, 
cerasus, cerasum ; mains, malum ; moms, morum ; pnrus,pirum ; 
primus, prunum ; pbmus, pomum. But flcus means both a 
fig-tree, and a fig. 

Exc. 2. Besides these, only four w r ords, originally Latin, 
are feminine ; viz, alvus, the belly; colus, the distaff; humus, 
the ground ; and vannus, a winnowing fan. 

Exc. 3. Virus, juice, poison ; smdijielagus, the sea, are neuter, 
and have the accusative and vocative like the nominative. 
Vulgus, the common people, is both masculine and neuter. 
Pampians, a vine branch, is rarely feminine, commonly mas- 
culine. 

Exc. 4. Many Greek nouns in us, are feminine, especially 
compounds of ooog', as, methodus, periodus, &c. So also, biblus 
paplrus diphthongus, paragraphia, diametrus, perimetrics. 



20 . SECOND DECLENSION. § 10 



EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

69. — Exc. 5. The Vocative Singular. 1st. Pro- 
per names in ius lose us in the vocative ; as, 
Virgilius, V. Virgili / except Pius, which has 
Pie. 

In like manner, Jilius, a son, has fill; and genius, one's 
guardian angel, has geni. But other common nouns in ins, 
and such epithets as Delius, Saturnius, &c, not considered as 
proper names, have ie. Also proper names in ius, from 
Greek nouns in stog, have ie. 

2d. Deus has cfez/s in the vocative, and in the plural more 
frequently dii and diis, (sometimes contracted di and dis,) 
than del and tfm. Mens, my, has the vocative mi, sometimes 
mens. 

70. — Obs. The poets, sometimes, make the vocative of 
nouns in us, like the nominative, which is seldom done in 
prose. Sometimes, also, they change nouns in er into 
us; as, Evander or Evandrus ; in the vocative, Evander 
or Evandre. 

71. — ^^c. 6. ?7*e Genitive Singular. — Nouns in ius and 
ium, in the purest age of the Latin language, formed the 
genitive singular in i, not in ii, both in prose and verse ; as, 
Jlli, Tulli, ingeni; they are now frequently written with a 
circumflex ; thus, Jilt, Tulli, ingeni; for, Jilii, Tullii, &c. 

72. — jSItc. 7. TAe Genitive Plural. — Some nouns, especially 
those which denote value, measure, weight, commonly form 
the genitive plural in um, instead of drum; as, nummum, 
sestertium, &c. The same form occurs in other w T ords, espe- 
cially in poetry ; as, deiim, Danaum, &c. ; also, divom is used 
for divorum. 

73. — Deus, a god, is thus declined : 



Si 


ngular. 




Plural. 






N. 


De-us, 


N. 


De-i, or Di-i, 


Contr. 


Di, 


a. 


De-i, 


G. 


De-6rum, 






D. 


De-o, 


D. 


De-is, or Di-is, 


u 


Dis, 


Ac. 


De-um, 


Ac. 


De-os, 






V. 


De-us, 


V; 


De-i, or Di-i. 


u 


Di, 


Ab. 


De-o. 


Ab. 


De-is, or Di-is, 


u 


Dis. 



§ 10 THIRD DECLENSION. 21 

GREEK NOUNS. 

74. — Greek nouns in os and on, are often changed into us 
and um ; as, Alpheos, Alpheus ; Ilion, Ilium : and those in ros, 
into er; as, Alexandros, Alexander. When thus changed, they 
are declined like Latin nouns of the same terminations. 
Otherwise, 

Greek nouns are thus declined : 

Androgeos, Masc ; Delos, Fern, 

Singular. 

N. Androge-os, Del-os, 

G. Androge-o, or -i, Del-i, 

D. Androge-o, Del-o, 

Ac. Androge-o, or -on, Del-on, 

V. Androge-os, Del-e, 

Ah. Androge-o. Del-o. 

75. — Some nouns in os, anciently had the genitive in u ; as, Menandru. 
Panthu occurs in Virgil, as the vocative of Panthus. Proper names in eics 
are declined like dominus, but have the vocative in eus, and sometimes con 
tract the genitive singular ; as, Orphe'i into Orphei, or Orphi. Proper names 
in which en is a diphthong, are of the third declension. Other nouns, also, 
are sometimes of the third declension ; as, Androgeo, Androgeonis. 

EXERCISES ON THE SECOND DECLENSION. 
List of words in the following exercises : 



mi. — Barbiton, 


a ly 


re, Neut. 


Singular. 




Plural. 


N. barbit-on, 




barbit-a, 


G. barbit-i, 




barbit-on 


D. barbit-o, 




barbit-is, 


Ac. barbit-on, 




barbit-a, 


V. barbit-on, 




barbit-a, 


Ab. barbit-o. 




barbit-is. 



Puer, 


a boy. 


Regnum, a kingdom, 


Solum, 


the soil, 


Dominus, 


a lord. 


Ventus, the wind. 


Oculus, 


the eye. 


Liber, 


a book. 


Ccelum, heaven. 


Filius, 


a son. 



Tell the case and number of the folloiving rvords, and trans- 
late them accordingly : — Pueri, dominorum, domino, puero, 
puerum, pueros, libri, libris, librum, libro, dominis, domine, 
regnum, regna, regnorum — ventus, vento, ventum — oculus, 
oculorum— filii, fili, filiis, filios. 

Translate the following words into Latin : — To a boy, from 
a boy, O boy, O boys, of boys ; books, of books, for books, 
in books, with a book ; a lord, from a lord, to a lord, of lords, 
the lords ; of a kingdom, the kingdom, to the kingdoms ; to 
the winds of heaven, lords of the soil, &c, ad libitum. 



22 THIRD DECLENSION. § 11 

§ 11. THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

76. — Nouns of the third declension are very 
numerous ; they are of all genders, and generally 
increase one syllable in the oblique cases. Its 
final letters, in the nominative, are thirteen, #, e i 
i, <9, y, <?, d y I, n, r, <?, £, x. Of these, #, ^ y, are 
peculiar to Greek nouns. 

Obs. A noun is said to increase, when it has more syllables 
in any case than it has in the nominative. 





TERMINATIONS. 




Mascu 


/ke and Feminine. 


Neuter. 


Singular. 


Plural. Singular. 


Plural. 


IV. -, 


N. -es, 


JV. - 


iV. -a, 


G. -is, 


6r. -urn, or — ium, 


G. -is, 


G. -urn, or -iiim, 


D. -i, 


D. -Ibus, 


D. -i, 


i). -ibus, 


Ac. -em, 


Ac. -es, 


^4c. — , 


Ac. -a, 


v. — 


V. -es, 


v. - 


F. -a, 


Ah. -e, or 


-i. ^6. -ibus. 


Ab. -e, or ■ 


-i. Ab. -ibus. 



77.— GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In this declension, the nominative and vocative of mas- 
culine and feminine nouns are always alike. As the final 
syllables of the nominative are very numerous, a dash ( — ) 
supplies their place in the preceding table. Neuter nouns 
come under the general rule, (57-1). 

2. All nouns of this declension are declined by annexing 
the above case-endings, or terminations to the root. 

3. The Root consists of all that stands before is in the 
genitive (56), and remains unchanged throughout. Hence, 
when the genitive case is found, the cases after that are alike 
in all nouns, except as noticed hereafter. In most nouns of 
this declension, the root does not appear in full form in the 
nominative, nor in the vocative singular. See 78, 80, 81. 

4. The genitive singular of nouns, in this declension, will 
be most easily learned from the Dictionary, as all rules that 
can be given are rendered nearly useless by the number of 
exceptions under them. 



12 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



28 



5. In the following examples, the root and terminations are 
separated by a hyphen (-), in order to show more distinctly 
the regularity of the declension. This being mentioned, it 
will occasion no difficulty, though standing, as it often does, in 
the middle of syllables ; as, pa tr-is. 



78.— § 12. EXAMPLES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 




1. Sermo, a speech, . 


Vlasc. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Thuf 


\ decline : 


X- Sermo, 


JV. Sermon-es, 


Carbo, 


a ccaL 


G. Sermon-is, 


G. Sermon-um, 


Leo, 


a lion. 


D. Sermon-i, 


D. Sermon-ibus, 


Oratio, 


an oration. 


Ac. Sermon-em, 


Ac. Sermon-es, 


Pavo, 


a peacock. 


V. Sermo, 


V. Sermon-es, 


Prsedo, 


a robber. 


Ab. Sermon-e, 


Ab. Sermon-ibus, 


Titio, ' 


afire-brand. 



Note. Homo, riemo, Apollo, and turbo ; also, car do, ordo, mar go, and like- 
wise, nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, change o into % before 
the terminations; as, Homo, liomlnis ; Cupido, Cupidixis ; imago, imag inis. 
But Comedo, uriedo, and harpago, retain o ; as, Comedo, comedonis. Aniotmd. 
Nerio change o into e ; as, Anio, Anienis ; and cdro has carnis, by syncope 
for carorvis, 

2. Color, a color, Masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. color, 


N. color-es, 


Arbor, 




a tree 


G. color-is, 


G. color-um, 


Cantor, 




a singer. 


D. color-i, 


D. color-Ibus, 


Honor, 




honor 


Ac. color-em, 


Ac. color-es, 


Labor, 




labor 


V. color, 


V. color-es, 


Lector, 




a- reader 


Ab. color-e. 


Ab. color-ibus. 


Pastor, 


a 


shepherd 



3. Miles, a soldier, Masc. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


K 


miles, 


N. milit-es, 


G. 


milit-is, 


G. milit-um, 


D. 


milit-i, 


D. milit-lbus, 


Ac 


milit-em, 


Ac. milit-es, 


V. 


miles, 


V. milit-es, 


Ab 


. milit-e. 


Ab. milit-ibus 



Thus decline : 
Ales, a bird. 

Comes, a companion. 
Limes, a limit. 

Trames, a path. 

Seges, -etis, a crop. 
Teges, -etis, a mat. 



24 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§ 12 



Fern. 



79. — Rule 1. Nouns in es and is, not increasing 
in the genitive singular, have ium in the genitive 
plural; as, 

4, Rupes, a rock, 

Plural.' 

N. rup-es, 

G. rup-ium, 
D. rup-ibus, 
Ac. rup-es, 

V. rup-es, 
Ab. rup-ibus. 



Singular. 
N. rup-es, 
G. r tip-is, 
D. rup-i, 
Ac. riip-em, 
V. rup-es, 
Ab. rup-e. 



Thus decline : 


Apis, 

Classis, 

Moles, 


a bee. 

a fleet 

a mass. 


Nubes, 


a cloud. 


Vitis, 


a vine. 


Vulpes, 


a fox. 



Exc. Strues, a pile ; votes, a prophet ; cani% a dog \jitvenis, a young man * 
mugilis, a mullet; panis, bread; strigilis, sl scraper, have um. Sedes, 
mensis, apis or apes, and volucris, have um or iu?n. 

80. — Rule 2. Nouns of one syllable in as and 
IS) and also, in s and x, after a consonant, have 
ium in the genitive plural; as, 

5. Pars, a part, Fern. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


JV". pars, 


N. part-es, 


Calx, -cis, 


the heel. 


G. part-is, 


G. part-ium, 


Vas, -dis, 


a surety. 


D. part-i, 


D. part-ibus, 


Lis, -tis, 


a lawsuit. 


Ac. part-em, 


Ac. part-es, 


Arx, -cis, 


a citadel. 


V. pars, 


V. part-es, 


Urbs, -is, 


a city. 


Ab. part-e, 


Ab. part-ibus. 


Pons, -tis, 


a bridge. 



.81. — Rule 3. Nouns of more than one syllable 
in as and ns, have um, and sometimes him, in 
the genitive plural; as, 



6. Parens, a parent, Masc. or Fern. 



Singular. 
N. parens, 
G. parent-is, 
D. parent-i, 
Ac. parent-em, 
V. parens, 
Ab. parent-e. 



Plural. 
jV". parent-es, 
G. parent-um,-ium, 
D. parent-Ibus, 
Ac. parent-es, " 
V. parent-es, 
Ab. parent-lbus. 



Thus decline : 
Bidens, a fork. 

Rudens, a cable. 

Cliens, a client. 

Serpens, a serpent. 

Sextans, a sixth of an as. 
Torrens, a torrent. 



& 12 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



25 



82. — Obs. 1. Masculine and feminine nouns, which have xum 
in the genitive plural, sometimes have is, or els, as well as es 
in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural ; as, partes, 
partium; — nominative, accusative, and vocative, partes, parteis, 
or ^a?'^'s. 

7. Opus, a work, Neut. (57-1.) 

Thus decline : 
Funus, a funeral. 

Latus, the side. 

Corpus, -oris, the body. 
Caput, capitis, the head. 
Femur, -oris, the thigh. 
Iter, itineris, a journey. 

83. — Kule 4. Nouns in e, al, and ar, have 
i in the ablative singular ; ium in the genitive 
plural; and ia in the nominative, accusative, and 
vocative plural; as, 



Singular. 


Plural. 


JV. opus, 


N. oper-a, 


G. oper-is. 


G. oper-um, 


D. oper-i, 


D. oper-ibus, 


Ac. opus, 


Ac. oper-a, 


V. opus, 


V. oper-a, 


Ab. oper-e. 


Ab. oper-ibus, 



8. Sedile, a seat, Neut. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. 


sedil-e, 


N. 


sedil-ia, 


Ancile, 


a shield. 


G. 


sedil-is, 


G. 


sedil-ium, 


Mantile, 


a towel. 


D. 


sedil-i, 


D. 


sedil-ibus, 


Mare, 


the. sea. 


Ac 


sedil-e, 


Ac. 


sedil-ia, 


Ovile, 


a sheep-fold. 


v- 


sedfl-e, 


V. 


sedil-ia, 


Rete, 


a net. 


Ab 


. sedll-i. 


Ab 


sedil-ibus. 


Cubile, 


a couch. 



9. Animal, an animal, Neut.. 



Singular. 




Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. animal, 


JV. 


animal-ia, 


Cubital, a cushion. 


G. animal-is, 


G. 


animal-ium, 


Calcar, a spur. 


D. animal-i, 


D. 


animal-ibus, 


Jubar, a sun-beam. 


Ac. animal, 


Ac. 


animal-ia, 


Nectar, nectar. 


V. animal, 


V. 


animal-ia, 


Toral, a bed-cover. 


Ab, animal-i. 


Ab 


animal-ibus. 


Vectigal, a tax. 



Exc. Proper names in e have e in the 
town in Italy ; ablative, Prceneste. 

2 



ablative ■ as, Prceneste, Neut,, a 



26 



THIKD DECLENSION. 



§ 12 



84.— ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Acer, -eris, n., 


a maple tree. 


Homo, -inis, c, 


a man 


iEtas, -atis, £, 


age. 


Imago, -inis, f., 


an image 


Arbor, -oris, f., 


a tree. 


Lac, -tis, n., 


milk. 


Aries, -etis, m., 


a ram. 


Lapis, -idis, m., 


a stooge. 


Ars, -tis, f., 


an art. 


Laus, -dis, £, 


'praise. 


Canon, -onis, m., 


a rule. 


Lex, legis, f , 


a law. 


Career, -eris, m., 


a prison. 


Monile, -is, n., 


a necklace. 


Cardo, -inis, m., 


a hinge. 


Mons, -tis, m., 


a mountain 


Carmen, -inis, n. 3 


, a poem. 


Munus, -eris, n., 


a gift. 


Cervix, -icis, f., 


the neck. 


Nix, niyis, f., 


snow. 


Codex, -icis, m., 


a booh. 


!N"ox, noctis, £, 


night. 


Consul, -tilis, m., 


a consul. 


Onus, -eris, n., 


a burden 


Cor, cordis, n., 


the heart. 


Pecten, -inis, m., 


a comb. 


Crux, -iicis, £, 


a cross. 


Regio, -6nis, £, 


a region. 


Dens, -tis, m., 


a tooth. 


Salar, -aris, m., 


a trout. 


Dos, dotis, f., 


a dowry. 


Serpens, -tis, c, 


a serpent. 


Formldo, -inis, £. 


, fear. 


Trabs, -abis, £, 


a beam. 


Fornax, -acis, £, 


a furnace. 


Turris, -is, £, 


a tower. 


Frater, -tris, m., 


a brother. 


Uter, utris, m., 


a bottle. 


Fur, furis, c, 


a thief. 


Yirgo, -inis, £, 


a virgin. 


Genus, -eris, n., 


a kind. 


Yoluptas, -atis, £ 


, pleasure. 


Hseres, -edis, c, 


an heir. 


Vulnus, -eris, n., 


a wound. 



EXERCISES OIS T THE EXAMPLES. 



Tell the case and number of the following words, and trans 
late them accordingly : — Sermonis, sermonum ; coloribus, 
colori, colore, colores ; militum, militis, militem, militibus; 
riipis, rupe, rupium, rtipi, rupibus ; partium, partes, parte, 
partis ; parenti, parente, parentum, parentes, parentis ; opera, 
opere, operi, operibus, operum ; sedilis, sedilia, sedilibus, sedili. 
sedilium ; anirnalia, animalis, animali ; carminis, carmini, car 
tnimbus. 

Translate the following words into Latin : — Of a rock, oi 
rocks ; from a soldier, with soldiers ; to a seat, seats, of seats . 
the works, of a soldier; to the color, of a rock, a seat, for & 
parent, the speech, of a parent, to a soldier, the color, of au 
animal, from rocks, to rocks, of a region, for a serpent, tht 
night, &c. ad libitum. 



§ 13 THIRD DECLENSION. 27 

§ 13. GENDER OF NOUNS IN THE THIRD DE- 
CLENSION. 

1. MASCULINE NOUNS. 

85. — Rule 1. Nouns in n, o, er, or, es increas* 
ing (76, Obs.,) and os, are generally masculine. 

86. — The following are exceptions; viz: 

1. Exceptions in N. 

Fem. Sindon, aedor; halcyon, and Icon, are feminine. 
Neut. Gluten, 'unguen, inguen, pollen, and all nouns in men ; as carmen* 
nomen, etc., are neuter. 

2. Exceptions in O. 

Fem. 1. Nouns in io, denoting things incorporeal, are feminine. 

2. Nouns in do and go, of more than two syllables, -with grando, 

virgo, and sometimes margo, are feminine. 
But harpdgo, comedo, unedo and Cupldo, Cupid, are masculine. 

Note. Cupido, desire, in prose, is always feminine ; in poetry, 
often masculine. 

3. Gdro, flesh, is feminine, and Greek nouns in o; as, echo, Argo. 

3. Exceptions in ER. 

Fem. Tuber, the tuber-tree, and sometimes linter, a boat, are feminine. 
Neut. Acer, cadaver, cicer, iter, laser, I aver, papdver, piper, slier, spinther, 

suber, tuber, & swelling, uber, ver, verber, zingiber, and sometimes 

siser, are neuter. 

4. Exceptions in OR. 

Fem. Arbor, a tree, is feminine. (45-2.) 

Neut. Ador, cequor, marmor, and cor, the heart, are neuter. 

5. Exceptions in ES, increasing (76, Obs). 

Fem. Compes, merces, merges, quies, requies, inquies, seges, teges, tudes, ana 

sometimes ales, a bird, are feminine. 
Neut. jEs, brass, is neuter. 



6. Exceptions in OS. 



Fem. Arbos, (45-2) cos, dps, eos, are feminine. 

Neut. Os, the mouth ; os, a bone ; also, the Greek chaos, ethos, epos, and 
melos, are neuter. 



28 



THIRD DECLENSION. 



§ 13 



2. FEMININE NOUNS. 

87. — Rule 2. Nouns in as, es not increasing, 
is, ys, and aus j — also in s after a consonant, and 
#, are, for the most part, feminine. 

88. — The following are exceptions ; viz : 
1. Exceptions in AS. 

Masc. As, 2l piece of money, and Greek nouns in as, -antis, are masculine. 
Neut. Vas, a vessel, and Greek nouns in as, -dtis, are neuter. 



2. Exceptions in ES not increasing. 

, and sometimes palumbes, and v 
oomanes, nepenthes, and panaces, 

3. Exceptions in IS. 



Masc. Acinaces, coles, and sometimes palumbes, and vepres. 
Neut. Cacoethes, hippomanes, nepenthes, and panaces, Greek. 



Masc. 1. Latin nouns in nis are masculine. But a?nnis, cinis, clunis, finis, 


and funis 


, are sometimes feminine. Fines, boundaries, in the 


plural, is 


always masculine. 




2. The following nouns are masculine, viz : 


Axis, 


Cossis, 


Lapis, Semissis, 


Aqualis, 


Cucuinis, 


Mensis, Sentis, 


Callis, 


Decussis, 


Mugilis, Sodalis, 


Cassis, 


Ensis, 


Orbis, Torris, 


Caulis, or 


) Fascis, 
J FoUis, 


Piscis, Unguis, 


Colis, 


Pollis, Vectis, 


Centussis 


, Fustis/ 


Postis, Vermis, 


Collis, 


Glis, 


Sanguis, Vomis. 


Masc. or Fem. Angui 


s, candlis, cenchris 


corbis, pulvis, scrobis, tigris, tor 


quis, are 


masculine or feminine. 



4. Exceptions in YS. 

Masc. Names of rivers and mountains, as Halys, Othrys, <tc, are commonly 
masculine. (45-2.) 

5. Exceptions in S after a consonant 

Masc. 1. Dens, fons, mons, and pons ; also, chdlybs, ellops, epops, gryps, 
hydrops, merops, and seps, are masculine. 
2. Nouns in ns, originally participles, and compounds of dens, as 
occidens, oriens, bidens, a two-pronged hoe ; also sextans, qua.- 
drafts, triens, (fee, parts of as, are masculine ; but bidens, a sheep, 
is feminine. 
Masc. or Fem. Adeps, forceps, ricdens, scrobs, serpens, stirps. 

Note. Animans, a living creature, is of all genders. 



§ 13 THIRD DECLENSION. 29 

6. Exceptions in X. 

Masc. 1. AX. Cor ax, cordax, dropax, sty rax, thorax, are masculine. 

2. EX. All nouns in ex are masculine, except lex, nex, supellex i 

feminine ; cortex, imbrex, obex, rumex, silex, sometimea 
feminine ; grex and pumex, rarely feminine ; and atriplex i 
neuter. 

3. IX. Cdlix, fornix, phoenix, spddix, are masculine, and sometimea 

perdix and varix ; otherwise feminine. 

4. OX. Box, esox, and volvox. are masculine. 
6. UX. Tradux is masculine. 

6. YX. Bombyx, a silk worm ; calyn, coccyx, oryx, are masculine ■ 

but onyx, and sandyx, p.vq masculine or feminine. 
*7. NX. Quincunx, septunx, decunz, deunx, parts of as, are mad 
culine ; lynx is mascauiifc or feminine. 
Calx, lime, is feminine ; calr, ULc keel, masculine or feminine. 
Bombyx, silk, is feminine. 
Neut. Atriplex, gold-herb, is neuter. 

3. NEUTER NOUNS. 

89. — Rule 3. Nouns in a, e, % c, and £, are 
always neuter ; those in Z, ai\ ur, and us, are al- 
most always neuter. 

90. The following are exceptions ; viz : 
1. Exceptions in L. 

Masc. Mugil and sol are masculine; sal, in the singular, is commonly 
masculine or feminine, sometimes neuter ; in the plural, always 
masculine. 4 

2. Exceptions in AS. 

Masc. Sdlar is masculine. Par, in the sense of " mate," is masculine or 
feminine ; in the sense of " a pair," it is neuter. 

3. Exceptions in UR. 

Masc. Astur, furfur, turtur, and vultur, are masculine. 

4. Exceptions in US. 

Masc. Lepus, mus, rhus, meaning a seed, or spice, and Greek nouns in pi«s 

(except lagopus, feminine), are masculine. 
Fem. Nouns in us, having litis, or udis in the genitive ; also pecus, -udis 

tellus, lagopus, and rhus, meaning a tree, are feminine. Grus, is 

masculine or feminine. 



30 THIED DECLENSION. § 15 

90.— § 15. EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

1. The following nouns in is have im in the accusative. 

Aniussis, f., a measure, rule. Ravis, f., a hoarseness. 

Buris, f., the beam of a plough. Sinapis, f., mustard. 

Cannabis, £, hemp. Sitis, f., thirst. 

Cucumis, m., a cucumber. Tussis, £> a cough 

•Gumrnis, f., gum. Yis, £, strength. 
Mephitis, f., a strong smell. 

2. Proper names in is not increasing in the genitive, have 
im in the accusative ; viz : 

Names of cities and other places ; as, Bilbilis, f., a city of 
Spain ; Syrtis, f., a quicksand on the coast of Africa. 

Names of rivers ; as, Tiberis, m., the Tiber ; Boetis, m., the 
Guadalquivir. 

Names of gods ; as, Anubis, m. ; Osiris, m., Egyptian deities. 

Note. These nouns have sometimes in in the accusative. 

3. The following nouns in is have em or im in the accusative ; 
viz : 

Aqualis, f., a water pot. Puppis, f., the stern of a ship. 

Clavis, f., a key. Restis, f., a rope. 

Cutis, f., the skin. Securis, f., an axe. 

Pebris, f., a fever. Sementis, £, a sowing. 

Lens, £, lentiles. StrigHis, f., a curry-comb. 

Navis, f.j a ship. Turris, f., a tower. 
Pelvis, f., a bason. 

Note 1. Puppis, restis, securis, and turris, have generally im; the others 
commonly em. The oldest Latin writers form the accusative of some other 
nouns in im; as, dvis, auris. 

4. Nouns which have been adopted from the Greek, some- 
times retain a in the accusative ; as, heros, m., a hero, heroa ; 
Tros, m., a Trojan, Troa. (See No. 13 below.) 

Note 2. This form of the accusative singular is seldom used by the best 
prose writers, and is chiefly confined to proper names, except in aer, m., the 
air; aether, m., the sky; delp/dn, m., a dolphin; Pan, m., the god of the 
shepherds, which commonly have aera, aitliera, delpliina, and Pdna. 

Obs. 1. Many Greek nouns in es have en, as well as em, in 
the accusative ; as, Euphraten, Oresten, Pyldden. 



§ 15 THIRD DECLENSION. SI 

ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

5. Nouns in is, which, have im in the accusative, 
have i in the ablative ; as, sitis, sitim, siti. 

But cannabis, Bcctis, sinapis, and Tigris, have e or i. 

6. Nouns in & 9 which have em or im in the 
accusative, have e or i in the Ablative ; as, cldvn; 
clave or cldvi. 

NoU 3. But cutis, and restu, have 6 only ; securis, sementis, and strigilis. 
seldom have e. 

7. The following nouns, which have em in the acccusative, 
have e or i in the ablative ; viz : 

Ainnis, m., a river. Occiput, n., the hind-head. 

Anguis, m. and f., a snake. Orbis, nx, a circle. 

Avis, f., a bird. Pars, £, a, part. 

Civis, c, a citizen. Postis, m., a door post. 

Classis, f., a fleet. Pugil, c, a pugilist. 

Finis, m. and f., an end. Rus, n., the country. 

Fustis, nx, a staff. Sors, f., a lot. 

Ignis, m., afire. Supellex, f., furniture. 

Imber, m., a shower. Unguis, m., a nail. 

Mugil, m., a mullet. Vectis, m., a lever. 

Note 4. Finis, mugil, occiput, picgil, rus, supellex, and vectis, have e or i 
indifferently ; the others much more frequently have e. 

Obs. 2. Names of towns, when they denote the place in or 
at which any thing is done, take e or i ; as, Carthagine, or 
Carthagini. 

Obs. 3. Canalis, m. or f, a water pipe, has canali only. 
Likewise names of months in is or er; as, Aprllis, September, 
Apjrlli, Septembri ; and those nouns in is which were originally 
adjectives ; as, cedllis, affinis, bipennis, familiar is, na talis, 
rivalis, sodalis, volucris, &c. This class of nouns also admits 
e in the ablative : Budis, f., a rod, and juvenis, c, a youth, have 
e only. 

8. The following neuter nouns in al and ar have e in the 
ablative ; viz : 

Baccar, ladfs glove. Jubar, a sunbeam. Par, a pair. 
Far, corn. Nectar, nectar. Sal, salt. 

Obs. 4. Mare, the sea, has the ablative in e or i. 



32 



THIED DECLENSION. 



§ 15 



GENITIVE PLURAL. 

[See Rules, 79—83.] 

9. The following nouns have ium in the genitive plural : 

Caro, f., flesh. Lar, m., a household god. Par, a, a pair. 

Conors, f., a cohort. Linter, m. or f., a boat. Quiris, m., a Roman. 

Cor, n., the heart. Mas, in., a male. Samnis, m., a Samrate 

Cos, f., a whetstone. Nix, f., snow. Strix, f., a screech-owl. 

Dos, £,, a dowry. Nox, f., night. Uter, m., a bottle. 

Fauce, f., the jaws. Os, n., a bone. Venter, m., the belly. 

Obs. 5. The compounds of uncia and as have likewise ium; as, Septunx, 
m., seven ounces, septuncium ; sextans, m., two ounces, sextantium. 

Obs. 6. Apis, f., a bee, has apum and apium ; fraus, fraud ; and mus, a 
mouse, generally, and fornax, lar, palus, and radix, sometimes, have ium; 
opis, t, power, has opum only. Gryps, m., a griffon ; lynx, m. or f., a lynx ; 
and Sphinx, f., the Sphinx, have icm. Bos, c, gen. bovis, an ox, has bourn. 

DATIVE PLURAL. 

10. Bos, c, an ox or a cow, has bobus or bubus in the dative plural ; and 
sus, c, a sow, has suibus, or subus. Nouns in ma have tis as well as tibus ; 
as, poema, n., a poem, poematibus or poematis. The Greek termination s« 
or sin- is very uncommon in prose, and is admissible only in words purely 
Greek. (See No. 13, below.) 

ACCUSATIVE PLURAL, 

11. The form of the accusative plural in as is admissible in all wordi 
which have that termination in Greek, but is rarely used in prose. Livy 
however, frequently uses Macedonas ; and Allobrogas is found in Caesa* 
(For the accusative plural in is, or eis, see 82.) 

12. Some nouns of the third declension are somewhat p« 
cuiiar in different cases, as follows : 



Jupiter. 


Vis, force. 


poiver, Fern. 


Singular. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


N. Jupiter, 


JV. vis, 


iV. vir-es, 


G. J6v-is, 


6r. vis, 


G. vir-ium, 


D. Jov-i, 


D. — , 


D. vir-ibus, 


Ac. Jov-em, 


Ac. vim, 


Ac. vir-es, 


V. Jupiter, 


V. vis, 


V. vir-es, 


Ab. Jdv-e. 


Ab. yi. 


Ab. vir-ibus. 



§ 16 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



33 



Bos, an ox, or cow, Masc. or Fem. 



Singular. 
If. bos, 

G. bov-is, 
D. bov-i, 
Ac. bov-em, 

V. bos, 
Ab. bov-e, 



Plural. 
If. bov-es, 
G. bourn, 

D. bobus, or btibus,* 
Ac. bov-es, 
V. bov-es, 
Ab. bobus, or btibus. 



Contracted for bG<vibu£< 



13. GREEK NOUNS THROUGH ALL THE CASES. 



Nam. 


Gen. 


S. Lampas 


-adis, or -ados, 


PL Lamp-ades, 


-adum. 


8. Tro-as, 


-adis, or -ados, 


PZ.Tro-ades, 


-adum, 


S. Heros, 


-OlS, 


S. Phyll-is, 


-idis, or -idos, 


& Par-is. 


-Idis, or -Idos, 


8. Chlam-ys, 


-ydis, or -ydos, 


8 Cap-ys, 


-yis, or -yos, 


S. Hseres-is, 


-is, -ios, or -eos, 


S. Orph-eus, 
& Did-o, 


-eos, er-ei, or-ei, 


-us, or -onis, 



Bat. 


Ace. 


Voc. 


^M. 


-adi, 


-adem, or -ada 


-as, 


-ade. 


-adibus, 


-ades, or -adas, 


-ades, 


-adibus. 


-adi, 

c -adibus, 


-adem, or -ada, 


-as, 


-ade. 


) 




c -adibus. 


<-asi, or 


> -ades, or -adas, 


-Mes, 


< -asi, or 


( -asin, 


) 




( -asin. 


-01, 


-oem, or -oa, 


-OS, 


-oe. 


-Idi, 


-Idem, or -Ida, 


-i, or-is, 


-Ide. 


-idi, 


-ldem,-im, or-in, 


-i, 


-Ide. 


-y<k, 


-ydem, o?* -Ida, 


-y s , 


-yde. 


-yi ? 


-ym, or -yn, 


-y, 


-ye. 


-h 


-im, or -in, 


-i> 


-i. 


-el, or -ei, 


-ea, 


-eu, 


-eo. 


-o, or-oni, 


-o, or -onein, 


-o, 


-o, or-one. 



§ 16. FOURTH DECLENSION. 

91. — The Fourth Declension has two termina- 
tions of the nominative singular, us and v>. 
Those in u are neuter. 



TERMINATIONS. 



Masculine and Feminine. 



Neuter. 



Singular. 


PluraL 


Singular. 


PluraL 


If. -us, 


-US, 


N. -u, 


-ua, 


G. -us, 


— uum, 


G. -us, 


-uum, 


D. -ui, 


-ibus, 


D. -u (ui), 


-:bus, 


^4c.-um, 


-us, 


Ac. -u, 


-ua, 


V. -us, 


-us, 


V. -u, 


-ua, 


Ab. -u, 


-Ibus. 


Ab.-u, 


-ibus. 



84 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 



16 



Fructus, fruit, Masc. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. fruct-us, 


iV. fruct-us, 


Cantus, a song. 


G. fruct-us, 


G. fruct-uum, 


Casus a fall. 


D. fruct-ui, 


D. fruct-ibus, 


Currus, a chariot. 


Ac. fruct-um, 


Ac. fruct-us, 


Fluctus, a wave. 


V. fruct-us, 


V. fruct-us, 


Gradus, a step. 


Ab. fruct-u* 


Ab. fruct-ibus. 


Senatus, the senate. 




Cornu, a horn, Neut. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. corn-u, 


JV. corn-ua, 




G. corn-us (93-4), 


G. corn-uum, 


Gelu, ice 


D. corn-u, 


D. corn-ibus, 


Genu, the knee. 


Ac. corn-u, 


Ac. corn-ua, 


Pecu, cattle. 


V. corn-u, 


V. corn-ua, 


Veru, a spit. 


Ab. corn-u. 


Ab. cornlbus. 





Note. The only neuters in this declension are cornu, gelu, genu, veru, and 
pecu, which has the dative pecui : tonitrus, us, m., and tonitruum, i, n., 
thunder, are in common use; tonitru is hardly ever found in classic writers, 
and never in the nominative or accusative singular. 



ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 



Flatus, a blast. 
Ictus, a stroke. 
Manus, f., the hand. 



Motus, a motion. 
Niitus, a nod. 
Passus, a pace. 



Ritus, a ceremony. 
Sinus, a bosom. 
Situs, a situation. 



92.— EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 
Exc. 1. The following nouns are feminine ; viz : 

Acus, a needle. Ficus, a Jig. Porticus, a gallery. 

Anus, an old woman. Manus, the hand. Specus,* a den. 

Domus, a house. Penus,* a storehouse. Tribus, a tribe. 

* Sometimes masculine. 
EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. 

Exc. 2. The Genitive and Dative singular : — In some writers, 
the genitive singular is occasionally found in uis ; as, ejus anuis- 
causa, for anus. Terence: sometimes also in i; as, sendti and 
tumulti. Sall. In others, the dative is sometimes found in u; 
as, resistere impetu, for impetui ; Esse icsu sibi, for usui. Cic. 



§ 16 FOURTH DECLENSION. 35 

Exc. 3. The Genitive, Dative, and Ablative plural : — The 
genitive plural is sometimes contracted ; as, currum, for cur- 
ruum. The following nouns have ubus instead of ibus in the 
dative and ablative plural ; viz : 

Aeus, a needle. Lacus, a lake. Specus, a den. 

Arcus, a bow. Partus, a birth. Tribus, a tribe. 

Artus, a joint. Portus,* a harbour. Vera,* a spit. 

Genu,* the knee. 

* These words also have -ibus in the dative plural. 

9a— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns of this declension seem to have belonged anciently 
to the third, and were declined like grus, gruis; thus, fructus, 
fructu-is, fructu-i, &c. So that all the cases, except the Dative 
singular and the genitive plural, may be regarded as contracted 
forms of that declension. 

2. Several nouns of this declension are, in whole or in part, 
of the second also; such as, Flcus, laurus, phius, plnus, domus, 
senatus, tumultus, and several others. Capricomus, m., and 
the compounds of mdnus, as unimdnus, centimanus, &c, are 
always of the second. 

3. Jesus, the name of the Saviour, has um in the accusative, 
and u in all the other oblique cases. This word does not pro- 
perly belong to this declension, but is after the Greek : 'Irjaovs, 
ov, ov. ovv, ov. 

4. Nouns in u were formerly considered indeclinable in the 
singular ; but the recent investigations of Freund and others, 
have shown this opinion to be incorrect, at least with regard 
to the genitive ; and that u, the only termination of the dative 
now found, is probably a contraction for ui — just as usu is 
contracted for usui. (Exc. 2.) 

5. Domus, a house, Fern., is thus declined : 

Singular. Plural. 

N. dom-us, N. dom-us, 

G. dom-us, or -i, G. dom-orum, or -uum, 

D. dom-ui, or -o, D. dom-ibus, 

Ac. dom-um, Ac. dom-us, or -os, 

V. dom-us, V. dom-us, 

Ab. dom-o. Ab. dom-ibus. 

Bote.— Domus in the genitive, signifies of a house. Domi is used omy to 
signify at Jiome, or of home. 



36 FIFTH DECLENSION. § .17 

EXERCISES ON THE FOURTH DECLENSION. 

1. Tell the gender, number, and case, of the following words, 
from the paradigm and additional examples, pp. 34 and 35, and 
translate : 

Fructus, fructus, fructuum, flatlbus, flatu, manuum, mambus, 
nutu, passuum, passibus, passus, cornua, tonitrlbus, veriibus, 
easu, currum, currui, fluctu, fluctibus, cornibus, &c. 

2. Translate the following words into Latin, and tell the 
gender, number, and case, in which the words are put ; viz : 

Of fruit, to fruit, with the hand, for the hand, of a horn, to 
a horn, with a horn, from horns, horns, the horns, of the 
chariot, for a chariot, of chariots, from the waves, for the 
waves, from his hands, with a nod, &c. 



§ 17. FIFTH DECLENSION. 

94. — The Fifth Declension has but one termi- 
nation of the nominative singular, namely, es ; as, 
res, a thing : dies, a day. 

All nouns of this declension are feminine, except dies, a 
day, which is masculine or feminine in the singular, and al- 
ways masculine in the plural ; and meridies, the mid-day, which 
is masculine in the singular, and wants the plural. 





1. Dies, 


a day. 












TERMINATIONS. 


Singular. 


Plural. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


N. di-es, 


N. di-es, 






-es, 


-es, 


G. di-ei, 


G. di-erum. 






-ei, -ei, 


-erum, 


D. di ei, 


D. di-ebus, 






-ei, -ei, 


-ebus, 


Ac. di-em, 


Ac. di-es, 






-em, 


-es, 


V. di-es, 


V. di-es, 






-es, 


-es, 


Ab. di-e. 


Ab. di-ebus. 






-e. 


-ebus, 



Obs. 1. Dies, res, and species, are the only nouns of the 
fifth declension which have the plural complete; acies, effigies, 
fades, series, and spes, in the plural, have only the nominative, 
accusative, and vocative ; the other nouns of this declension 
have no plural. 



§17 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 



37 



2. Facies, the face, Fern. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Thus decline : 


N. faci-es, 


JV. faci-es, 




G. faci-ei, 


G. 


Acies, an army. 


D. faci-ei, 

Ac. faci-em, 


Ac. faci-es, 


Effigies, an image. 
Series, a series. 


V. faci-es, 
Ab. faci-e. 


V. faci-es. 
Ab. 


Spes, -ei, hope. 



Exc. The poets sometimes make the genitive, and more 
rarely the dative singular, in e; as, fide for fidei, Ov. : some- 
times in i; as, pernicii for perniciei, Nep. ; and plebi for 
plebe'i, Liv. Bequies is both of the third and the fifth declension. 

EXERCISES ON THE FIFTH DECLENSION. 

1. Tell the gender, number, and case of the following nouns, 
and translate them : — Die!, spef, aciem, acie, faciei, facies, 
diebus, dierum, dies, faciem, effigiem, series, rerum, diebus, 
diem, &c, ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, and 
tell the gender, &c. : — The image, of the face, the things, of 
the army, the hope, of the army, a series, of days, to a day, 
from the days, with the army, to an image, &c. 



PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES ON ALL THE DECLENSIONS. 

Tell the gender, declension, case, and number, of the following 
nouns, in the order here mentioned, and give the translation ; 
thus, Penna, a noun, feminine, of the first declension, in the 
ablative singular, ;i with a pen " * : 

Via, pueri, genero, ventis, puerorum, sermo, sedile, sedili, 
sedilium, sedilibus, fructuum, fructus, sellse, ttibam, regno, 



* The following are the 
indicated by the genitive, 
Ala, -se, a icing. 
Bellum, -i, icar. 
Caput, -itis, the head. 
Color, -is, cofor. 
Dies, -ei, a day. 
Dominus, -i, a lord. 
Facies, -ei, the face. 
Fructus, -us, fruit, 
Gener, -i, a son-in-law. 
lienor, -is, honor. 



words used in these exercises ; the declension n 
according to No. 55. 



Iter, itineris, a icay. 
Manus, -us, a hand. 
Mensa, -se, a table. 
Miles, -itis, a soldier. 
Parens, -tis, a pare?it. 
Pars, -tis, apart. 
Puer, -i, a boy. 
Eegnum, -i, a Vingdom. 
Pes, rei, a thing. 
Rupes, -is, a rock- 



Sedile, -is, a seat. 
Sella, -se, a seat. 
Sermo, -onis, a speech, 
Templum, -i, a temple, 
Tempus, -oris, time. 
Tuba, -83, a trumpet. 
Urbs, -is, a city. 
Ventus, -i, the wind. 
Via, -se, a way. 
Vulpes, -is, a fox 



38 IRREGULAR NOUNS. §18 

templi, dies, rerum, capite, capitum, itineribus, partis, parent- 
Ibus, rupe, urbis, vulpem, vulpibus, parente, sedilia, die, 
colorem, militis, militibus, sermones, honore, minus, manus, 
manibus, facieni, ala, tubam, mensarum, bellum, dominorum, 
ternplum, puerorum, bella, bello, &c. 

Translate the following into Latin, and state the gender, de- 
clension, case, and number, always following the same order ; 
thus, " Of boys" puerorum, a noun, masculine, of the first de- 
clension, in the genitive jplural : 

From the way, to a speech, with a part, of a seat, of seats, 
to the wind, a kingdom, to a boy, of boys, with lords, foxes, 
of tables, to parents, with seats, of soldiers, from the head, 
heads, to a part, with a trumpet, in a time, of war, the time, 
of color, in a journey, to a seat, of a rock, to sons-in-law, 
with fruit, of the face, with a seat, to tables, of rocks, &c. 



§ 18. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

95. Irregular Nouns are divided into Variable, Defective, and 
Redundant 

I. VARIABLE NOUNS. 

96. — Nouns are variable either in Gender, or Declension, 
or in both. Nouns varying in gender are called, Hetero- 
geneous. Those which vary in declension are called, Hetero- 
clites. 

Heterogeneous JSfouns. 

1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural ; as, 

Avermis, a hill in Campania. Pangaeus, a promontory in Thrace. 

Dindymus, a hill in Phrygia. Tsenarus, a promontory in Laconia. 

Ismarus, a hill in Thrace. Tartarus, hell. 

Maenalus, a hill in Arcadia. Taygetus, a hill in Laconia. 

2. Masculine in the singular, masculine and neuter in the 
plural ; as, jocus, a jest, plural joci and joca; locus, a place, 
plural loci and loca. 

3. Feminine in the singular, neuter in the plural ; as, 
carbasus, a sail, plural carbasa; Pergdmus, the citadel of 
Troy, plural Pergdma. 



§ IS IRREGULAR NOUNS. 39 

4. Neuter in the singular, masculine in the plural ; as, Argos, 
^rgos, a city in Greece, plural Arcji; Elysium, the Elysian 
ields, plural Elysii; coelum, heaven, plural coeli. 

Note 1. — Argos, in the Singular, is used only in the Norn, and Ace. 

5. Neuter in the singular, masculine and neuter in the 
Dlural ; as, frenum, a bridle, plural freni and frena; rostrum, 
i rake, plural rastri and rastra. 

6. Neuter in the singular, feminine in the plural ; as, ba l~ 
leum, a bath, plural balneal, seldom balnea; epulum, a ban- 
quet, plural epulai; delictum, a delight, plural delicice. 

Heteroclites. 

?. Vas, vasis, neuter, a vessel, of the third declension, plural 
msa, vasorum, of the second. Jugerum, jugeri, neuter, an 
icre, of the second declension, plural jugera, jugerum., of the 
;hird. Jugeris and jug ere from jugus, are also found in the 
lingular, (See Num. 11 below.) 

8. Some Greek proper nouns are declined both by the 
second declension and the third, as foilows : 



Jrpheus, \ ' 
( -eos, 



Xom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc; Abl. 

-eo, -eum, or -eon, -eo ; 2d Decl. 

-ei, -ea, -eu, 8d Decl. 

r j -i, -o, -um, -o; 2d Decl. 

* ' ( -odis, -odi, -odem, -u, -ode ; 3d Decl. 

^.chilleus, -ei, -eo, -eu, -eo ; 2d Decl. 

Achilles, -lis, or -leos, -li, -lem, or -len, -les, or -le, -le; 3d Decl, 

DOUBLE NOUNS. 

9. To this class may be referred a few double nouns, the 
parts of which are of different declensions. When the two 
lominatives combine, both parts are declined like a substantive 
md adjective ; thus, 

Respublica, a commonwealth, Fern. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


N. 


respublica, 


JK 


respublicae, 


G. 


rerpublicae, 


G. 


rerumpublicaru m, 


D. 


reipublicae, 


D. 


rebuspublicis, 


Ac. 


rempublicam, 


Ac. 


respublicas, 


V. 


respublica, 


V. 


respublicse, 


Ab 


republica. 


Ab. 


rebu spublicis. 



40 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Jusjurandum, an oath, Neut. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. jusjurandum, N. jurajuranda, 

G. jurisjurandi, G. 

D. jurijurando, D. 

Ac. jusjurandum, Ac. jurajuranda, 

V. jusjurandum, V. jurajuranda, 

^46.jurejurando, Ab.— 

When the one part is a nominative, and the other an oblique 
case, the part in the nominative only is declined ; as, 

Materfamilias, a mistress of a family, Fern. 

Singular. 

N. materfamilias, 

G. matrisfamilias, 

D. matrifamilias, 

Ac. matremfamilias, 

V. materfamilias, 

Ab. matrefamilias. 

Mote 2. — Here, familias is an old form of the genitive, and is governed by 
mater. So, Paterfamilias, filius-familias, Jilia- familias. PL matres-fami- 
Udrum, &e. In this way, fa?nilice is used as well as, familias. 

II DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

Nouns are defective either in Case or in Number. 

Obs. 1. Indeclinable nouns, i. e., nouns which have the same 
form in all cases, though commonly ranked under this class, 
do not properly belong to it, because none of the cases are 
wanting. They are such as pondo, n., a pound or pounds ; 
semis, n., the half; mille, a thousand; cwpe, an onion; opus, 
need or needful, used both as a substantive and an adjective. 
To these may be added any word used as a noun ; as, velle, in 
the phrase, suum velle (for sua voluntas), his own inclination ; 
— proper names adopted from a foreign language ; as, Eliza- 
bet, Jerusalem, &c. 

I. Nouns defective in particular cases. 

Note. — A noun used in one case only, is called a monoptote; in two cases, a 
dvptote; in three, a triptote; in four," a tetraptote; in five, a pentaptote. An 
indeclinable word is called an apioie. 

10. The following nouns are used only in one case • 

Nominative. Inquies, f., want of rest. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 41 

Ablative. 

Adnionitu, m., an admonition. Ingratiis, f., in spite of. 

Ambage, i. } a winding. Injussu, m., without order. 

Casse, m, a net. Interdiu, by day. 

Dm, by day. Katu, m., by birth. 

Ergo, on account of. Noctu, f., by night. 

Fauce, f., the jaws. Proniptu, m., in readiness. 

Obs. 2. Many verbal nouns of the fourth declension are 
used only in the ablative singular ; as, accltu, promptu, &c. 
Dlcis, f., and nauci, n., are used only in the genitive singular ; 
as dlcis gratia, for form's sake ; res nauci, a thing of no value. 
Inficias, f., and incita, f., or incitas, have only the accusative 
plural ; as, inficias ire, to deny ; ad incitas reductus, reduced 
to extremities. Ambages, casses said fauces, are regularly de- 
clined in the plural. 

11. The following nouns are used only in two cases : 

Nominative and Accusative. 
Astu, n., the city of Athens. Instar, n., likeness, bigness. 

Inferiae, -as, f., sacrifices to the dead. Suppetise, -as, f., help. 

Nominative and Ablative. 
Astus, -u, m., cunning. Vesper, -e, or -i, m., the evening. 

Genitive and Ablative. 
Conrpedis, -e, f., a fetter. Spontis, -e, f., of one's own accord. 

Inrpetis, -e, m., force. V erberis, -e, n., a stripe. 

Jugeris, -e, n., an acre. Repetundarum, -is, f., extortion. 

Obs. 3. Compedes,juglra and verbera are regularly declined 
in the plural. Astus is found in the nominative and accusative 
plural. 

12. The following nouns are used only in three cases 

Nominative, Accusative and Vocative. 

Cacdethes, n., a bad custom. JSTefas, n., impiety. 

(Also other Greek nouns in -es.) ISihil, and Ml, n., nothing. 
Cete, n., whales. Tempe, n., the vale of Tempe. 

Dica, -am, f., a process ; pi. -as. 

Nominative, Accusative and Ablative. 

Epos, n., a heroic poem. Melos, n., a song ; pi. -e. 

Fas, n., divine law. Mane, -e, -e, n., the morning. 

Grates, f., thanks. Tabes, f., consumption. 

Lues, f., a plague. Yepres, or -is, m., a brier. 



42 IRREGULAR NOUJSBL § 18 

Nom., Gen. and Abl. Tabum, n., putrid gore. 
Norn., Gen. and Ace. Munia, -oruni, n., offices. 

OpisJ!., genitive, help, (from ops,) has opem in the accusative, and ope 
in the ablative singular, with the plural complete, opes, opwn, <fec, wealth ; 
and preci, i, dative, a prayer, (from prex,) has precem and prece, with the 
plural entire, preces, precum, &c. Feminis, n., genitive, the thigh, (from 
femen,) has femini and femine, in the dative and ablative singular, and 
feniina in the noniinativ-2, accusative and vocative plural. 

Obs. 4. Vepres has the plural entire ; and tabes and gralibus, 
the nominative and the ablative plural of tabes and grates, are 
also found. 

The following nouns want the genitive, dative, and ablative 
plural : 

Far, n., corn. Mel, n., honey. Rus, n., the country. 

Hiems, f., winter. Metus, m.,fear. Thus, n., frankincense. 

(For nouns of the Fifth Declension, see 94.) 

13. The following nouns want the nominative and vocative, 
and are therefore used only in four cases : 

Ditionis, f., power. Sordis, f., filth. 

Pectidis, f., a beast. Vicis, f., a change. 

To these may be added daps, f., a dish; frux, f., corn; and nex, f. ; 
slaughter, which are seldom used in the nominative. The plural of frux 
is entire ; daps wants the genitive ; and nex seems to have the nominative, 
accusative, and vocative only. 

Chaos, n., a confused mass, wants the genitive and dative 
singular, and is not used in the plural. 

Obs. 5. Pecudis and sordis have the plural entire ; vicis is 
defective in the genitive ; ditionis has no plural. 

14. Some nouns are defective in one case. 
The following want the genitive plural : 

Faex, f., dregs. Proles, f., offspring. 

Fax, f., a torch. Ros, m., dew. 

Labes, £, a stain. Soboles, f., offspring. 

Lux, £, light. Sol, m., the sun. 
Os, n., the mouth. 

Satias, i, a glut of any thing, and solum, n., the sea, want the genitive 
singular and the plural entirely. Situs, m., a situation, mustiness, want* 



§ 18 IKKEGULAR NOUNS. 43 

the genitive, and perhaps the dative singular, and probably the genitive, 
dative, and ablative plural. Nemo, c., nobody, wants the vocative singular, 
and has no pluraL 

II. Nouns defective in number. 

15. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, cannot be used in the plural. Such are the names 
of virtues and vices ; of arts, herbs, metals, liquors, different 
kinds of corn, abstract nouns, &c. ; as, justitia, justice ; luxus, 
luxury; miislca, music; apium, parsley; aurum, gold; lac, 
milk ; triticum, wheat ; magnitude*, greatness ; senectus, old 
age ; macies, leanness, &c. But some of the nouns included 
in these classes are occasionally found in the plural. 

16. The following masculine nouns, for the most part, want 
the plural : 

Aer, aeris, the air. Penus, -i, or -us, all manner of pro- 

^Ether, -eris, the sky. visions. 

Firnus, -i, dung. Pontus, -i, the sea. 

Hesperus, -i, the evening star. Pulvis, -eris, dust. 

Limus, -i, mud. Sanguis, -inis, blood. 

Meridies, -iei, mid-day. Sopor, -oris, sleep. 

Mundus, -i, a woman's ornaments. Yeternus, -i, a lethargy. 

Muscus, -i, moss. 

Note 3. — Aer, pulvis, and sopor are found in the plural. 

17. The following feminine nouns, for the most part, want 
the plural : 

Argilla, -ae, potter's earth. Salus, -litis, safety. 

Fames, -is, hunger. Sitis, -is, thirst. 

Humus, -i, the ground. Supellex, -ctilis, household furni* 

Indoles, -is, a disposition. ture. 

Plebs, -is, the common people. Yenia, -ae, pardon. 

Pubes, -is, the youth. Yespera, -ae, the evening 

The following are sometimes found in the plural : 

Bilis, -is, bile. Pituita, -ae, phlegm. 

Cholera, -ae, choler. Pix, -cis, pitch. 

Cutis, -is, the skin. Proles, -is, offspring. 

Fama, -&,fame. Quies, -etis, rest. 

Gloria, -ae, glory. Soboles, -is, offspring. 

Labes, -is, a stai n. Tellus, -uris, the earth. 
Pax. -cis, peace. 

3* 



4A IRREGULAR KOUNS. § 18 

18. The following neuter nouns, for the most part, want 
the plural : 

Album, -i, a list of names. Lutum, -i, clay. 

Barathrum, -i, any deep place. Nectar, -aris, nectar. 

Diluculum, -i, the dawn of day. Pelagus, -i, the sea. 

Ebur, -oris, ivory. Penum, -i, and penus, -oris, all kinds 

Fcenuni, -i, hay. of provisions. 

Gelu, frost, indeclinable. Pus, puris, matter. 

Hilum, -i, the black speck of a bmn; Sal, salis, salt. 

a trifle. Yer, yeris, the spring. 

Jubar, -aris, the sunbeam. Virus, -i, poison. 
Justitium, -i, a vacation, the time Vitrum,-i, glass. 

when courts do not sit. Yiscum, -i, the mistletoe. 

Lardum, -i, bacon. Yulgus, i, the rabble. 
Lethum, -i, death. 

Obs. 6. JEbur, lardum, lutum, and pus, are found in the 
plural ; and pelage is found, in some cases, as the plural of 
pelagus; sal, as a neuter noun, is not used in the plural. 

19. Many nouns want the singular ; such as the names of 
feasts, books, games, and many cities and places ; as, 

Apollinares, -ium, games in honor of Olympia, -drum, the Olympic games. 

Apollo. Syracusae, -arum, Syracuse. 

Bacchanalia, -ium, and -orum, the Hierosolyma, -oruni, Jerusalem. 

feasts of Bacchus. Therraopylas, -arum, the straits of 
Bucolica, -orum, a book of pastorals. Thermopylae. 

20. The following masculine nouns are scarcely used in 
the singular : 

Antes, the front rows of vines. Inferi, the gods below. 

Cancelli, lattices, or windows made Lemures, -um, ghosts, hobgoblins. 

with cross-bars. Liberi, children. 

Cani, gray hairs. Majores, -um, ancestors. 

Celeres, -um, the light-horse. Manes, -ium, ghosts. 

Codicilli, writings. Minores, -um, successors. 

Fasti, -orum, or fastus, -uum, calen- Penates, -um, or -ium, household gods, 

dars, in which were marked festival- Posteri, posterity. 

days, &c. Proceres, -um, the nobles. 

Fori, the gangways of a ship, or scats Pugillares, -ium, writing tables. 

in the Circus. Superi, the gods above. 

Obs. 7. Liberi and proceres are also found in the singular 
(procere?n). Some of the others, as inferi, majores, &c, 



§ 18 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



45 



are properly adjectives, and agree with the substantives which 
are implied in their signification. 

21. The following feminine nouns want the singular : 

Kalendae, Nonae, Idus, Parietinae, ruinous walls 
-mim, names which the Phalerae, trappings. 
Romans gave to certain Primitiae, first fruits, 
days in each month. Reliquiae, a remainder. 
Lactes, the small guts. Sallnae, salt-pits. 
Lapicidinae, stone guar- Scalae, a ladder, 
ries. Scopae, a besom. 

Mauubiae, spoils taken in Tenebrae, darkness. 

war. 
Minae, threats. 
jiduviae, clothes to put Nugae, trifles. 

on. Nundinae, a market. 

usidiae, snares. Nuptiae, a marriage. 

The following are generally found in the plural : 

Upes, the Alps. Charites, -um, the Graces. 

^.rgutiae, quirks, witticisms. Facetiae, pleasant sayings. 

Blgae, a chariot drawn by two horses. Ineptiae, silly stories. 

^rlgae, by three. Praestigiae, enchantments. 

Quadrigae, by four. Salebrae, rugged places. 

Braccae, breeches. 

22. The following neuter nouns want the singular : 



Dlitellae, a pannier. 
Curiae, a cradle. 
Dirae, imprecations. 
Divitiae, riches. 
Excubiae, watches. 
Exsequiae, funerals. 
Exuviae, spoils. 
Feriae, holidays. 
jl-errae, trifles. 
induciae, a truce. 



Thermae, hot baths. 
Tricae, toys. 
Valvae, folding doors. 
Vindiciae, a claim of li 
berty, a defence 



^cta, public acts or records. 
Estiva, summer quarters, 
ivma, arms. 
Bellaria, -um, dainties. 
Previa, -um, shallows. • 
)ibaria, victuals. 
)repundia, children s toys. 
)unabiila, a cradle, an origin, 
£xta, the entrails. 
"'ebrua, purifying sacrifices. 
r labra, blasts of ivind. 
r raga, strawberries. 
lyberna, winter quarters. 
lia, -um, the entrails. 
i usta, funeral rites. 
^amenta, lamentations. 



Lautia, provisions for the entertain- 
ment of foreign ambassadors. 

Magalia, -um, cottages. 

Moenia, -um, the walls of a city. 

Orgia, the sacred rites of Bacchus. 

Pareutalia, -um, solemnities at the 
funeral of parents. 

Praecordia, the diaphragm, the heart. 

Sponsalia, -um, espousals. 

Stativa, a standing camp. 

Talaria, -um, winged shoes. 

Tesqua, rough places. 

Transtra, the seats on which the rowers 
sit in ships. 

UtensHia, -um, utensils. 



46 IRREGULAR NOUNS. § 18 

Obs. 8. Acm and transtra, are also found in the singular. 
Some of the others, as cestlva, brevia, hyberna, statlva, &c, are 
properly adjectives ; and agree with the substantives which are 
necessary to complete their meaning. 

III. Redundant Nouns. 

23. Some nouns are redundant in termination, gender, oi 
form of declension : as, arbor, or arbos* a tree; vulgus, the 
rabble, masculine or neuter; menda, mendce, or mendum, mendi, 
a fault. 

The most numerous class of redundant nouns, is composed 
of those which express the same meaning by different termina- 
tions; as, 

ifither, -eris, do sethra, -se, the air. Gelu, do -urn, frost. 

Alvear, do -e, do -ium, a bee-hive. Gibbus, do -a ; do -er, -eris, or -eri, a 

Amaracus, do -urn, sweet marjoram. bunch, a swelling. 

Anclle, do -ium, an oval shield. Glutinum, do -en, glue. 

Angiportus, -us, do -i, do -urn, a narrow Grus, -uis, do -uis, -uis, a crane. 

lane. Laurus, i, do -us, a laurel tree. 

Aphractus, & -um, an open ship. Maceria, do -ies, -iei, a wall. 

Aplustre, do -um, thejlag, colors. Materia, -se, do -ies, -iei, matter. 

Aj^bor, do -os, a tree. Menda, -se, do -um, -i, a fault. 

Bacillus, do -um, a staff. Milliare, & -ium, a mile. 

Ralteus, do -um, a belt. Momtum, & -us, -us, an admonition. 

Batillus, <t -um, a fire-shovel. Muria, do -ies, -iei, brine or pickle. 

Capus, do -o, a capon. Nasus, do -um, the nose. 

Cassis, -idis, & -ida, -idae, a helmet. Obsidio, do -um, a siege. 

Cepa, do -e, (indee.), an onion. Ostrea, -ae, do -ea, orum, an oyster. 

Clypeus, do -um, a shield. Peplus, do -um, a veil, a robe. 

Colluvies, do -io, filth, dirt. ' Penus, -us, do -i ; do -um ; do -us, -oris, 

Compages, do -go, a joining. 'provisions. 

Conger, do -grus, a large eel. Pistrina, do -um, a grinding-house. 

Crocus, do -um, saffron. Plebs, do -es, the common people. 

Cubitus, do -um, a cubit. Prsetextus, -us, do -um, a pretext. 

Diluvium, do -es. a deluge. Rapum, do -a, a turnip. 

Elegi, -orum, do -la, art efc##. Ruma, do -men, ^e cz^/. 

Elephantus, 'do Elephas, -antis, an Ruscum, do -us, butcher's broom. 

elephant. Segmen, do -mentum, a paring. 

Esseda, do -um, a chariot. Sepes, do seps, a hedge. 

Eventus, do -a, -orum, an event. Sibllus, do -a, -orum, a hissing., 

Gausapa, do -e, -es ; do -e, -is ; do -um, a Sinus, do -um, a milk pail. 

rough cloth. Stramen, do -turn, straw. 



§ 18 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 47 

Suff Imen, <k -turn, a 'perfume. Torcular, <£ -are, a mine-press. 

Tignus, cfr -urn, a plank. Veternus, <& -urn, a lethargy. 

Toral, & -ale, a bed-covering. Viscura, & -us, £fo mistletoe. 
Tonitrus, -us, <£ -u, &■ -uum, thunder. 

Obs. 9. Some of the nouns in the preceding list, may be 
used in either or in any of the terminations, and in the singula) 
or plural, indifferently ; some, as auxilium, laurus^ -its, are 
used only in one or two cases; or in one number, as elegi; 
while others, as prcetextus (a pretext) and prcetextum (a border), 
though sometimes synonymous, are commonly employed in a 
different meaning. 

24. The following nouns have a meaning in the plural dif- 
ferent from that which generally belongs to them in the 
singular : 

Singular. Plural. 

Aedes, a temple. Aedes, a house. 

Auxilium, assistance. Auxilia, auxiliary troops. 

Bonuin, any thing good. Bona, goods, property. 

Career, a prison. Carceres, the barriers of a race 

course. 

Castrum, a fort. Castra, a camp. 

Comitium, a place in the Roman Comitia, an assembly of the peoph 

forum where the comitia were held. for the purpose of voting. 

Copia, plenty. Copise, troops. 

Cupedia, daintiness. Cupedise, or -a, dainties. 

Facultas, power, ability. Facilitates, wealth, property. 

Fascis, a bundle of twigs, a fagot, Fasces, a bundle of rods carried be- 
fore the chief magistrate of Rome 

Finis, ihe end of any thing. Fines, the boundaries of a country. 

Fortuna, fortune. Fortunae, an estate, possessions 

Gratia, grace, favor. Gratise, thanks. 

Hortus, a garden. Horti, pleasure-grounds. 

Litera, a letter of the alphabet. Literal, a letter, epistle. 

Lustrum, a period office years. Lustra, dens of wild beasts, 

Natalia, a birth-day. Natales, birth, descent. 

Opera, labor. ■ Operse, workmen. 

Opis, (genitive,) help. Opes, wealth, power. 

Pars, apart, portion. Partes, a party, faction. 

Plaga, a space, a tract of country. Plagae, nets used by hunters. 

Principium, a beginning, a first prin- Principia, a place in the camp where 

ciple, or element. the general 1 s tent stood. 



48 ADJECTIVES § 19 

Singular. Plural. 

Rostrum, the beak of a bird, the Rostra, a pulpit in the Roman forum, 
sharp part of the prow of a ship. from which orators used to address 

the people. 
Sal, salt. Sales, witticisms. 

Note 4. — All the nouns in the preceding list, except castrum and comitium, 
ate sometimes found in the singular, in the sense in which they more com- 
monly occur in the plural. 



§ 19. THE ADJECTIVE. 

97. — An Adjective is a word used to qualify 
a substantive ; as, vir bo^l t s, a good man ; decem 
naves, ten ships. 

A norm is qualified by an adjective when the object named 
is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things 
of the same name. 

1. The accidents of the adjective are gender, number, and 
case, and, of most adjectives, also comparison, 

2. Adjectives, in Latin, indicate the gender, number, and 
case, by the termination ; as, bon-us, bon-a, bon-um, (98.) 

3. Participles have the form and declension of adjectives, 
while, in time and signification, they belong to the verb. 

4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a different termi- 
nation in the nominative, and consequently have three ter- 
minations. Some have one form common' to the masculine 
and feminine, and are adjectives of two terminations ; and 
some are adjectives of one termination, which is common to 
all genders. 

5. Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions, 
or of the third only. 

6. Adjectives of three terminations (except thirteen), are of 
the first and second declensions ; but those of one or two ter- 
minations, are of the third. 

Exc. Thirteen adjectives in er, of three terminations, are 
of the third declension. (See 99-5,) 



§ 20 



ADJECTIVES. 



49 



§ 20. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND 
DECLENSIONS. 

98. — Adjectives of the first and second declensions have the 
masculine always in us or er; the feminine always in a, and 
the neuter always in um; as, masculine bonus, feminine bona, 
neuter bonum. good. 

The masculine in us and er, is declined like dominus, and 
gener; the feminine in a, like penna; and the neuter in um,, 
like regnum: thus, . 



1. Bonus, bona, bonum, good. 



Singular. 
Fern. 

a, 

93, 

93, 

am, 

a, 

a, 



Neut. 
um, 

h 

o, 

um, 

um, 

o. 





Plural. 




Masc. 




Fern, 


Neut. 


N. bon-i, 




83, 


a, 


G. bon-orum, 


arum, 


orum 


D. bon-is, 




is, 


is, 


Ac. bon-os, 




as, 


a, 


V. bon-i, 




83, 


a, 


Ab. bon-is, 




is, 


is. 



Masc. 
N. bon-us, 
G. bon-i, 
D. bon-o, 
Ac. bon-um, 
V. bon-e, 
Ab. bon-o, 

In the same manner decline : 
Altus, high. Cavus, hollow. Laetus, joyful. 

Amplus, large. Doctus, learned. Plemis,/?^. 

Blandus, flattering. Durus, hard. Privatus, private. 

Carus, dear. Fldus, faithful. Rectus, right. 

Also all participles, numerals, and pronouns, in us; as, ama- 
tus, amaturus, amandus, — primus, secundus, &c, — mens, tuus, 
suus. 

Note 1. — Mens has mi in the vocative masculine, seldom mens. 

2. Tener, tenera, tenerum, tender. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. tener, 


a,- 


um, 


N. tener-i, 


83, 


a, 


G. tener-i, 


83, 


h 


G. tener-orum,arum, 


orum 


D. tener-o, 


83, 


o, 


D. tener-is, 


is, 


is, 


Ac. tener-um, am, 


um, 


Ac. tener-os 


as, 


a, 


V. tener, 


a, 


um, 


V. tener-i, 


83, 


», 


Ab. tener-o, 


*, 


0. 


Ab. tener-is, 


is, 


is. 



50 



ADJECTIVES. 



§ 20 



In the same manner decline • 

Asper, rough. Miser, wretched. Exter, foreign. 

Liber, free. Prosper, prosperous. Satur, full. 

Also compounds derived from gero and fero ; as, lamger, bearing wool ; 
oplfer, bringing help. 

But most adjectives in er lose the e in all the genders (66) ; as, 



Masc. 
N. ater, 
G. atr-i, 
D. atr-o, 



atr-o. 



atr-as, 


atr-a, 


atr-se, 


atr-a, 


atr-is, 


atr-is 



3. Ater, atra, atrum, black. 

Plural. 
Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. atr-i, atr-se, atr-a, 
G. atr-orum, a tr-arum, atr-orum, 
D. atr-is, atr-is, atr-is, 
^4c.atr-os, 
V. atr-i, 
Ab.&tr4s, 

In like manner decline : 

Macer, lean. Sacer, sacred. 

Pulcher, fair. Sinister, left. 

Dexter, right, has dexira. dextrum ; or dextera, dtxterum. . 

4. The following adjectives have the genitive singular in 
ins, and the dative in i; namely, 

Alius, another of many. Solus, alone. 

Alter, the other of two. Totus, whole. 

Alteruter, the one or Ullus, any. 

other. Unus, one. 

Neuter, neither. liter, whether. 
Kullus, none. 

In the other cases, they are like bonus, tener, or ater ; as, 



Singular. 

Fern. Neut. 

atr-a, atr-um, 

atr-se, atr-i, 

atr-se, atr-o, 

Ac. atr-um, atr-a m, atr-um, 

V. ater, air-:!. atr-um, 
Ab. atr-o, atr-a, 



JKger, sick. 
Creber, frequent. 



Uterlibet, which of the 

two you please. 
liter que, both. 
Utervis, which of the 

two you please. 



ToTUS, TOTA, TOTUM, whole. 





Singular. 






Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


JSfeut. 


Masc 




Fern. 


Neut. 


N. tot-us, 


a, 


urn, 


N. tot-i. 




se, 


a, 


G. tot-ius, 


ius, 


ius, 


G. tot-orum, 


arum, 


orum 


Z>. tot-i, 


i> 


i, 


D. tot-is, 




is, 


is, 


Ac. tot-um, 


am, 


um, 


Ac. tot-os, 




as, 


a, 


V. tot-e, 


a, 


urn, 


V. tot-i, 




se, 


*i 


Ab. t<5t-o, 


a, 


0. 


Ab. tot-is, 




is, 


is. 



§ 21 



ADJECTIVES. 



51 



Note 2. — Alius has aliudiu. the neuter; and in the genitive alius, contracted 
for allius ; dative, alii. The genitive in ius, in poetry, has the i either long 
or short; in prose, always long. Uter, neuter, alter, alius, ullus, and nullus, 
instead of ius in the genitive, and i in the dative, occasionally, in the early 
writers, have the regular genitive i, o&, i, and dative o, ce, o. 



§ 21. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

99. — Rule 1. 'Adjectives of the third declen- 
sion, have e or ?', in the ablative singular ; but if 
the neuter is in e, the ablative has i only. 

Rule 2. The genitive plural ends in ium, and 
the neuter of the nominative, accusative, and voca- 
tive, in ia, 

JExc, Except comparatives, which have vm 
and. a. 

I. Adjectives of one termination. 

1. Felix, happy. 





Singular. 






Plural. 






Masc. Fern. 


Neut, Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut 


N, 


felix, felix, 


felix, 


JSf, felic-es 


es, 


ia, 


G. 


fellc-is, is, 


is, 


G. felic-ium, ium, 


ium 


D. 


felic-i, i, 


i, 


D. felic-ibus, ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac 


felic-em, em, 


felix, 


Ac. felic-es 


, es, 


ia, 


V. 


felix, felix, 


felix, 


V. felic-es 


es, 


ia, 


Ah felic-e or i, e or i, 


e ori. 


Ab, felic-ibus, ibus, 


ibus. 




In like manner decline : 








Ferox, bold. 


Supplex, sv,pplia?it. 


Trux, -ucis, ci 


'uel. 




Sagax, sagacious. 


Tenax, tenacious. 


Velox, -ocis, 


swift. 




2, 


Prudens, prudent. 

Singular. 








Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 






iV. prudens, 
G. prudent-is, 
B. prudent-i, 
Ac, prudent-em, 
V, prudens, 
Ab. prudent-e, or - 


prud( 
prud 
prud 
prud 
prud< 
i, prud< 


311S, 

3iit-is, 
3nt-i, 
ant-em, 
ms, 
mt-e, or -i, 


prudens, 

prudent-is, 

prudent-i, 

prudens, 

prudens, 

prudent-e, 


or -i. 



62 



AlVECTIVES. 



§ 21 



Masc. 
N. prudent-es, 
G. prudent-ium, 
D. prudent-ibus, 
Ac. prudent-es, 
V. prudent-es, 
Ab. prudent-ibus, 



I'lural. 

Fern. Neut. 

prudent-es, prudent-ia, 

prudent-ium, prudent-ium, 

prudent-ibus, prudent-ibus, 

prudent-es, prudent-ia, 

prudent-es, prudent-ia, 

prudent-ibus, prudent-ibus. 

In like manner decline < 

Clemens, -tis, gentle. Ingens, great. Recens, fresh. 

Also all participles in ns ; as, amans, docens, legens, audiens, &c. 

Note. — Participles have e oftener than i in the ablative singular, and in the 
ablative absolute, they have e only. 

II. Adjectives of tivo terminations. 

Mitts, mite, meek. 





Singular. 




Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fein. 


Neut. 


/V. mit-is, 


is, 


% 


JV. mlt-es, 


es, 


ia, 


G. mit-is, 


is, 


is, 


G. mit-ium, 


ium, 


ium, 


D. mit-i, 


i, 


h 


D. mit-ibus, 


ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac. mit-em 


em, 


e, 


Ac. mit-es, 


es, 


ia, 


V mit-is, 


is, 


e , 


V. mit-es, 


es, 


ia, 


Ab. mit-i, 


h 


h 


Ab. mit-ibus, 


ibus, 


ibus. 



In the same manner decline : 
Agilis, active. Debilis, weak. Talis, such. 

Brevis, short. Incolumis, safe. UtHis, useful, 

4. Comparative Degree, — Mitior, mitius, more meek. 



Singular. 




Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. Masc. Fern. 


Neut. 


N. mitior, 


mitior, 


mitius, 


JV. mitior-es, es, 


a, 


G. mitior-is, 


is, 


is, 


G. mitior-um, urn, 


urn, 


D. miti'3r-i, 


i, 


h § , 


D. mitior-ibus, ibus, 


ibus, 


Ac. mitior-em, 


em, 


mitius, 


Ac. mitior-es, es, 


a, 


V. mitior, 


mitior, 


mitius, 


V. mitior-es, es, 


a, 


Ab. mitior-e or\ 


, e or i, 


e or i. 


Ab. mitior-ibus, ibus, 


ibus 




In like manner decline : 




Altior, 


higher. 


Felicior, happier. Melior, better. 


Brevior 


, shorter. 


Fortior, braver. Molior, softer 


Durior, 


harder. 


Major 


, greater. Pejor, worse. 





§21 



ADJECTIVES. 



53 



Masc. 


Plural. 
Fem 


Neut. 


N. plur-es, 


es, 


a, (ia,) 


6r. plur-ium, 
D. plur-ibus, 
Ac. plur-es, 

Ab. plur-ibus, 


mm, 
ibus, 
es, 


mm, 
ibus, 
a, (ia,) 


ibus, 


ibus. 



JExc. Plus, more, has only the neuter gender in the singular, 
and is thus declined : 
Singular. 
Neut. 

N. plus, 
G. plur-is, 

D. 

Ac. plus, 

V. 

Ab. plur-e, or i. 

Note. — The neuter plural in ia is hardly ever used. The compound, com- 
plures, has no singular. 

III. A cljectives of three terminations. 

5. Acer or acris, acre, sharp. 

Singular. Plural. 

Masc. Fem. 

N. acer. or acr-is, is, 

67. acr-is, is, 

D. acr-i, i, 

Ac. acr-em, • em, 

V. acer, or acr-is, is, 

Ab. acr-i, i, 

Besides acer, the following twelve are declined in this way : 

Alacer, cheerful. Equester, equestrian. Saluber, wholesome. 

Campester,^/?^, level. Paluster, marshy. ' Silvester, woody. 

C eleber, famous. Pedester, on foot. Terrester, terrestrial. 

Celer, swift. Puter, putrid. Volucer, swift. 

100. — Exceptions in the Ablative Singular and 
Genitive Plural. 

Exc. 1. The following adjectives have e in the ablative 
singular, and um in the genitive plural ; viz : 

Ccelebs, unmarried. Pauper, poor. Sospes, safe. 

Compos, master of. Juvenis, young. Impubes, beardless. 

Hospes, strange. Pubis, marriageable. Superstes, surviving. 

Impos, unable. Senex, old. Vetus, old. 

The compounds of color , corpor, cuspis, and pes, have likewise e and 
urn. 



Neut. 




Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 


e, 


N. 


acr-es, ^ 


es, 


ia, 


is, 


G. 


acr-ium, 


ium, 


ium, 


i, 


D. 


acr-ibus, 


ibus, 


ibus, 


e, 


Ac 


acr-es, 


es, 


ia, 


t> 


V. 


acr-es, 


es, 


ia, 


i. 


Ab. 


acr-ibus, 


ibus, 


ibus. 



54 ADJECTIVES. § 22 

Kobe. — Codebs, compos, impos, and super stes, have sometimes i in the 
ablative. Fetus lias commonly veteri in the ablative, but always Vetera and 
veter um in the plural. 

Exc. 2. The following adjectives have e or i in the ablative 
singular, and um in the genitive plural ; viz : 

Ales, winged. Degener, degenerate. Partieeps, sharing. 

Anceps, double. Dispar, unequal. Preeceps, headlong. 

Artifex, artificial. Dives, rich^ Princeps, chief. 

Cicur. tame. Impar, unequal. Supplex, suppliant 

Oompar, equal. Inops, poor. Vigil, watchful. 

Note. — Memor, mindful ; immemor, unmindful ; par, equal ; uber, fertile ; 
volucer, swift, have i only in the ablative singular, and um in the genitive 
plural ; except par, which has ium. 

LoeuplitSs rich ; sons, guilty, and insons, innocent, have um, as well as ium, 
in the genitive plural. 



101.— § 22. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
Irregular adjectives are Defective or Medundant. 

I. DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

1. The adjectives frugi, temperate; sat or satis, sufficient; 
semis, half; and the plurals quot, how many '] tot, so many ; 
aliquot, some ; quotquot, and quotcunque, how many soever ; 
totidem, just so many, are indeclinable. Nequam, worthless, 
is also indeclinable, but used in both numbers. 

2. Exspes, hopeless ; and potis, neuter pote, sometimes 
potis, able, are used only in the nominative. They are of all 
genders, and potis is also found joined with plural nouns. 

Tantundem, as much, has tantidem in the genitive, and tan- 
tundem, m. and n., in the nominative and accusative singular. 

Necesse, or necessum, necessary; and volupe, pleasant, are 
used only in the nominative and accusative singular. 

3. Mactus, -e, and plural -i, a common word of encourage- 
ment, brave ! gallant ! is used only in the nominative and 
vocative singular, and nominative plural. 

Plus, more, in the singular, is neuter only ; wants the dative, 
and probably the vocative ; has e only in the ablative, and a, 
seldom ia, in the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural 
neuter. 



§ 22 ADJECTIVES. 55 

Primoris, genitive, first, wants the nominative and vocative 
singular, and the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural 
neuter; likewise semiuecis, half dead, which is not used in the 
neuter, and has seminecum in the genitive plural. 

Pauci, few ; and plerlque, the most part, are seldom used in 
the singular. 

4. The following classes of words want the vocative ; viz : 
Partitives; as, quldam, alius: Relatives; as, quails, quantus : 
Negatives; as, nullus, neuter: Interrogative^ ; as, qubtus ? 
titer? 

Except aliquis, quicunque, quilibet, and quisque. (See 131.) 

5. The following adjectives of one termination, in the sub- 
joined list, are scarcely used in the nominative, accusative, or 
vocative plural of the neuter gender ; viz : 

Adjectives in ER : as, pauper, puber, celer, degener, itber. 

Adjectives in FEX : as, artifex, camifex. 

Adjectives in OR : as, memor, concolor, bicorpor. 

Adjectives in ES : as, ales, dives, locuples, sospes, super stes, 
deses, reses, hebes, teres, prcepes. 

Adjectives in OS : as, compos, impos, exos. 

Also pubis, impubis, supplex, comis, inop)S, vigil, sons, insons, 
intercus, redux, and perhaps some others. 

Cceter, or ceeterus, the rest, is scarcely used in the nominative 
sin gular masculine . 

Victrix, victorious, and ultrix, revengeful, are feminine only 
in the singular, but feminine and neuter, in the plural ; victrlces, 
victricia. 

II REDUXDAOT ADJECTIVES. 

6. Some adjectives compounded of cllvus,frenum, bacillum, arma,jugurn, 
llmus, somnus, and animus, have two forms of declension ; one in us, of the 
first and second declensions ; and another in is, of the third ; as, acclivus, 
•a, -urn, and acclivis, -e, steep ; imbecillus, and imbecillis, weak ; semisomnus, 
and semisomnis, half-sleeping ; exanwius, and exaiii?nis, dead. Also, 
hilaris, and hildrus, merry. 

Obs. Some of these compounds do not admit of this variation ; as.. 
magnanirnus, flexanimus, ejfrenus, levisoinnus, not magnaiiimis. &c. On the 
contraiy, pusillanimis, injugis, illlmis, insomnis, exsomnis, are used, and 
not pusillanimus, <fce. Semianimis, inermis, subllrnis, acclivis, declivis, 
proclivls, are more common than semianimus, &a. Inanimis, and bijugis. 
are scarcely used. 



56 



ADJECTIVES. 



§23 



§ 23. EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVES. 

1. Adjectives and Subsla?itives to be declined together. 



Pai va casa, a small cottage. 
Clarus poeta, a famous poet. 
Pulchra filia, a beautiful daughter. 
Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. 
Docilis puer, a docile boy. 
Breve sevurn, a short life. 
Capax antrum, a capacious den. 
Magnum opus, a great work. 
Serenus dies, a clear day. 
Densa nubes, a thick cloud. 
Fidus pastor, a faithful shepherd. 



Alta arbor, a high tree. 
Priscus mos, an ancient custom, 
Callida aestas, a ivarm summer. 
Tutus portus, a safe harbor. 
Nobile carmen, a noble poem. 
Antiqua urbs, an ancient city. 
Magna dos, a great dowry. 
Cava navis, a hollow ship. 
Culpatus Paris, wicked Paris. 
' Miser Tros, a miserable Trojan. 
Infelix Dido, unhappy Dido. 



2. Translate the following words into English , according to 
their number and case : 



Operis magni, 
Claro poetse, 
Diei sereno, 
Diei sereni, 
Densis nubibus, 
Fidi pastoris, 
iEvo brevi, 



Urbem antiquam, 
Poetis ciaris, 
Pueri dociles, 
Dote magna, 
Morum priseorum, 
Carminis noblTis, 
Callida eestate, 



Urbis antiqua?, 
Paridi eulpato, 
Arbores alta?, 
Trois miseri, 
Dido infelici, 
Portibus tutis, 
Dulcium pomorum. 



3. Translate the following r phrases into Latin, observing to 
put the adjective in the same gender, number, and case, with the 
substantive. The words will be. found in the list above : 



To a small cottage, 
Of a capacious den, 
From lofty trees, 
For unhappy Dido, 
In a hollow ship, 
A wretched Trojan, 
With thick clouds, 
From a clear day, 
Of sweet apples, 
High trees, 
With great dowries, 



Of ancient customs, 
Of an ancient city, 
To a great work, 
wicked Paris, 
Faithful shepherds, 
In a short life, 
With a sweet apple, 
With clear days, 
Noble poems, 
Of ancient cities, 
In small cottages, 



In a great work, 
With wicked Paris, 
A harbor safe, 
In a clear day, 
Of small cottages, 
To a thick cloud, 
With high trees, 
Beautiful daughters, 
In a warm summer 
Of a short life, 
With docile bf ys. 



§ 24 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



57 



§ 24. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

102. — Numeral adjectives are those which signify number. 
In Latin, they are divided into four classes 5 viz : 

1. Cardinal, which express number simply, or how many; 
as, one, two, three, four, &c. 

2. Ordinal, denoting which one of a number ; as, first, 
second, third, fourth, &c. 

3. Distributive, denoting how many to each ; as, bini, two 
by two, or two to each. 

4. Multiplicative, denoting how many fold. 

I. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 



103. The Cardi 


'■rial 


' or Principal numbers are . 




Unus, 




L 


one. 


Duo, 




IL 


two. 


Tres, 




III. 


three. 


Quatuor, 




IIII, or IV. 


four. 


Quiuque, 




V. 


five. 


Sex, 




VL 


six. 


Sept em, 




VII 


seven. 


Octo, 




VIII 


eight 


Nov em, 




Villi, or IX. 


nine 


Decern, 




X. 


ten 


Undecim, 




XL 


eleven 


Duodeeim, 




XII. 


twelve 


Tredecim, 




XIII. 


thirteen 


Quatuordecim, 




XIIII, or XIV. 


fourteen 


Quindecim, 




XV. 


fifteen 


Sedecim, or Sexdecim, 


XVL 


sixteen 


Septemdecim, 




XVII. 


seventeen 


Octodecim, 




XVIIL 


eighteen 


Novemdecim, 




XVIIII, or XIX. 


nineteen 


Viginti, 




XX 


twenty 


Viginti unus, or 
Unus et viginti, 


\ 


XXL 


twenty-one 


Viginti duo, or 
Duo et viginti, <fcc. 


1 


XXIL 


twenty-two 


Triginta, 




XXX. 


thirty 


Quadraginta, 




XXXX, or XL. 


forty 



3* 



58 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



24 



Quinquaginta, 
Sexaginta, 
Septuaginta, 
Octoginta, 
Nonaginta, 
Centum, 

Centum Onus, or ) 

Centum et unus, (fee., ) 

Ducenti, -ae, -a, 

Trecenti, 

Quadringenti, 

Quingenti, 

Sexcenti, 

Septingenti, 

Octingenti, 

Nongenti, 

Mille, 

Duo millia, or ) 

Bis mille, ) 

Quinque millia, or ) 

Quinquies mille, ) 
Decern millia, or } 

Decies mille, J 
Quinquaginta millia, or } 

Quinquagies mille, ) 
Centum millia, or ) 

Centies mille, J 



L. 

LX. 

LXX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXX, or XC. 

C. 

CI. 

cc. 

ccc. 

cccc. 

10, or D. 

IOC, or DC. 

IOCC, or DCC. 

IOCCC, or DCCC. 

IOCCCC, or DCCCC. 

CIO, or M. 

CIOCIO, or MM. 
100, or V. 

CCIOO, or X. 

1000, or L. 
CCCI000, or C. 



fifty 

sixty, 

seventy. 

eighty 

ninety 

a hundred 

a hundred and one, dee, 

two hundred, 
three hundred 
four hundred. 

Jive hundred. 

six hundred. 

seven hundred. 

eight hundred. 

nine hundred. 

a thousand. 

two thousand. 

Jive thousand. 

ten thousand. 

fifty-thousand 

a hundred thousand. 



104.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Eighteen and nineteen are more properly expressed by 
duodeviginti, and undeviginti; from which Ordinals, Distri- 
butives and Adverbs are likewise formed. The same form is 
also used in the corresponding numbers of each of the other 
decades ; as, duodetriginta, twenty-eight; undetriginta, twenty- 
nine, &c. 

2. The Cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, want the 
singular. 

8. Unus, as a numeral, is not used in the plural, except 
when joined with a substantive that wants the singular ; as, 
una mcenia, one wall ; or when several particulars are con- 
sidered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes. 
Unus is declined like totus (98-4). 



§ 24 



NUMEKAL ADJECTIVES. 



59 



Duo, two. and Tres, three, are thus declined : 





Plural. 






Plural. . 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Keut. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. duo, 


duae, 


duo, 


N. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


G. duorum, 


duarum 


duorum, 


G. trium, 


trium, 


trium, 


D. duobus, 


duabus, 


duobus, 


D. tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus, 


Ac. duos, -o, 


duas, 


duo, 


Ac. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


V. duo, 


duae, 


duo, 


V. tres, 


tres, 


tria, 


Ab. duobus, 


duabus, 


duobus, 


Ab. tribus, 


tribus, 


tribus, 



Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 

4. All the cardinal numbers, from quatuor to centum in- 
clusive, are indeclinable; and from centum to mille, they are 
declined like the plural of bonus (98-1). 

5. Mi lie, when placed before a genitive plural, is a sub- 
stantive indeclinable in the singular ; in the plural, it is de- 
clined like the plural of sedlle (83-8) ; thus, millia, millium, 
millibus, &c. When it has a substantive in any other case 
than the genitive plural joined to it, it is a plural adjective 
indeclinable ; as, mille homines, a thousand men ; bis milk 
hominihus, with two thousand men. 



ROMAN METHOD OF NOTATION BY LETTERS. 

6. The capital letters used by the Romans to denote num- 
bers, were C, I, L, V, X, which are therefore called Numeral 
Letters. I, denotes one; V, five; X, ten; L, fifty, and C, a 
hundred. By the various combinations of these letters, all 
numbers were expressed as follows : 

The repetition of a letter repeats its value ; thus, II signifies 
two ; III, three; XX, twenty ; XXX, thirty; CC, two hundred; 
CCC, three hundred, &c. V and L are never repeated. 

When a letter of less value is placed before another of 
greater value, the value of the less is taken from the greater 
When placed after it, the value of the less is added to the 
greater; thus, 



IV. 


Four, 


V. 


Five, 


VI. 


Six. ' 


IX. 


Nine, 


X. 


Ten, 


XI. 


Eleven. 


XL. 


Forty, 


L. 


Fifty, 


LX. 


Sixty. 


XC. 


Ninety, 


C. 


A hundred, 


ex. 


A hundred and ten 



60 



NUMEKAL ADJECTIVES. 



§24 



A thousand vr&s marked CIO, which was afterwards expressed 
by M, the initial of mille. Five hundred is marked 10, after- 
wards changed into D. 

The annexing of to 10 makes its value ten times greater ; 
thus, 100 denotes five thousand; 1000, fifty thousand. 

In like manner, a C prefixed, together with another an- 
nexed to "the numerals CIO, always increases the value ten- 
fold ; thus, CIO, a thousand; CCIOO, ten thousand; CCCIOOO, 
a hundred thousand. Any higher number than this, according 
to Pliny, was expressed by repetition; thus, CCCIOOO, 
CCCIOOO, two hundred thousand. 

Thousands are sometimes_expressed by a line drawn_over 
the numeral letters; thus, III denotes three thousand; X, ten 
thousand, &c. 

II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

105. — The Ordinal Numerals are formed from the cardinal; 
they all end in us, and are declined like bonus (98-1); as, 
primus, first; secundus, second; &c. (See the following table.) 

III. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 

106. — Distributive numerals distribute an equal number to 
each individual of several objects, or an equal number at dif- 
ferent times. They answer the question, How many to each? 
or, How many each time ] as, blni, two each, or two at a 
time, two by two. They are all plural, and declined like the 
piural of bonus (98-1) ; but usually have um instead of drum 
in the genitive ; as, singuli, w, a ; &c. 

The following table contains the ordinal and distributive 
numbers, and the corresponding numeral adverbs : 



Ordinal. 


Distributive. 


Numeral Adverbs. 


1. Primus, first, 


Singuli, one 


by one, 


Semel, once. 


2. Secundus, second, 


Bini, two by 


two, 


Bis, twice. 


3, Tertius, third, 


Terni, or tri 


ini, (fee, 


Ter, thrice. 


4. Quartus, <fcc, 


Quatemi, 




Quater, four times. 


5 Quintus, 


Quini, 




Quinquies, &c. 


6 Sextus, 


Seni, 




Sexies. 


7. Septimus, 


Septeni, 




Septies. 


8. Octavus, 


Octoni, 




Octies. 


9. Nonus, 


Noveni, 




Novies. 


10. Decimus, 


Dgni, 




Decies. 



§ 24 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



61 





Ordinal. 




Distributive. 




Numeral Adverbs. 


11. 


Undeclmus, 




Undeni, 




Undecies. 


12. 


Duodeclmus, 




Duodeni, 




Duodecies. 


13. 


Tertius decimus, 




Term deni, 




Terdecies. 


U. 


Q.uartus decimus, 




Quarterui deni, 




Quaterdeciets. 


15. 


Quintus decinius, 




Quini deni, 




Quindecies. 


16. 


Sextus decimus, 




Seni deni, 




Sedecies. 


IV. 


Septimus decimus. 




Septeni deni, 




Decies et septies. 


18. 


Octavus decimus, 




Octoni deni, 




Decies et octies. 


19. 


Nonus decimus, 




Noveni deni, 




Decies et nonies. 


20. 


Yicesimus, or 
vigesmius, 


! 


Yiceni, 


> 


Yicies. 


21. 


Yicesimus primus. 




Yiceni singuli, 




Semel et yicies, 


22. 


Yicesimus secundus. 


Yiceni bini, 




Bis et vicies, &c. 


30. 


Tricesimus, or 
trigesimus, - 


} 


Triceni, 




Tricies. 


40. 


Quadragesimus, 




Quadrageni, 




Quadragies. 


50. 


Quinquagesimus, 




Quinquageni, 




Q.uinquagies. 


60. 


Sexagesimus, 




Sexageni, 




Sexagies. 


fo. 


Septuagesimus, 




Septageni, 




Septuagies. 


80. 


Octogesimus, 




Octogeni, 




Octogies. 


90. 


Nonagesimus, 




^onageni, 




JSTonagies. 


100. 


Centesimus, 




Centeni, 




Centies. 


200. 


Ducentesimus, 




Duceni, 




Ducenties. 


300. 


Trecentesimus, 




Treceni, or trecenteni, 


Trecenties. 


400. 


Quadringente- 
simus. 


\ 


Quadringeni, or 
quadringenteni. 


i 


Quadringenties. 


500. 


Quiugentesimus, 




Quingeni, 




Quingenties. 


600. 


Sexcenteslmus, 




Sexceni, or Sexcenteni, 


Sexcenties. 


700. 


Septingeutesimus, 




Septingeni, 




Septingenties. 


800. 


Octingentesimus, 




Octingeni,. 




Octingenties. 


900. 


JSTongentesimus, 




Nongeni, 




Noningenties. 


L000. 


Millesimus, 


\ 


Milleni, or 
singula millia, 


( 


Millies. 


J000. 


Bis millesimus, <fec. 


■\ 


Bis milleni, or 
bina millia, etc., 


( 


Bis millies, (fee. 



7. Instead of primus, prior is used, if only two are spoken 
of. Alter is often used for secundus. 

Twenty-first, thirty-first, &c., are often expressed by unui 
et vicesimus, unus et tricesimus, &c. ; and twenty-second, &c., 
by duo, or alter et vicsimus, in which duo is indeclinable. In 



62 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 24 

the other compound numbers, the larger precedes without et, 
or the smaller with et ; as, vicesimus quartus, or quartus et 
vicesimus. 

8. Distributives are used in a variety of ways, as 1st. Jn 
multiplication, -with adverbial numerals ; as, bis bina, tw ice- 
two, i e. four ; bis senos, twice six, i. e. twelve. 2d. Instead 
of cardinals, with words which have no singular; as, bin i 
codicilli, two writings ; or with nouns in the plural having the 
meaning of a singular, but still different from the meaning of 
the same word in the singular number (§ 18, 24, or 96-24) ; 
as, bina castra, bi?ice cedes, bince literce ; two camps, two houses, 
two epistles. Duo, duce, with these nouns, would mean two 
forts or castles ; two temples ; two letters of the alphabet. 
3d. Bini is used for duo, to denote things which exist in pairs ; 
as, bini boves, a pair of oxen ; bince aures, two ears. In ordi- ' 
nary language, distributives occur only in the plural — among 
the poets sometimes in the singular in the sense of multipli- 
catives ; as, centena arbore ( = centum arboribus), literally " with 
a tree a hundred fold." See also No. 11. 

9. The singular of some distributives, is sometimes used in 
the sense of a multiplicative ; as, binus, two-fold, &c. 

IY. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS. 

107. — Multiplicatives denote how many fold ; they all end 
in ex, and are declined Ydaefelix (99-1). They are as follows : 

Simplex, single. Quadriiplex, fourfold. 

Duplex, double. Quintuplex, fivefold. 

Triplex, threefold Centuplex, a hundredfold, <fcc., <fcc. 

10. To these classes may be added : 

1st. Proportionals, which denote how many times one thing 
is greater than another ; as, cluplus, twice as great. 

2d. Temporals, which denote time ; as, bimus, two years old ; 
biennis, of two years' continuance. 

3d. Those which denote how many parts a thing contains ; 
as, binarius, of two parts. 

4th. Intcrrogatives ; as, quot, how many ? qubtus, of what num- 
ber 1 ? qwAeni, how many each? quoties, how many 
times'? which have for their correlatives, tot, toil- 
dem, &c. 



§ 25 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 63 

11. The learner should carefully notice the distinction be- 
tween the cardinal and distributive numerals in their ordinary 
use. Thus, for example, Duo consules viginti naves habebant, 
means, " the two consuls together had twenty ships," i. e. 
twenty in all, or ten each ; but Duo consules vicenas naves 
habebant, means, " the two consuls had twenty ships each" or 
forty in all. 



§ 25. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

108. — Adjectives have three degrees of com- 
parison, the Positive, Comparative, and Super- 
lative. 

] 09. — The Positive expresses a quality simply ; as, bonus, 
guoc* The Comparative expresses a quality in a higher or 
lower degree in one object than in another, or than in several 
taken together. The Superlative expresses a quality in the 
highest or lowest degree in one object compared with several 
taken separately ; as, gold is heavier than silver ; it is the most 
precious of the metals. Hence, those adjectives only can be 
compared whose signification admits the distinction of more 
and less. 

110. — The Superlative is often used to express a very high 
or a very low degree of a quality, without implying com- 
parison ; as, vir doctissimus, " a very learned man ;" hortus 
amcenissimus, " a most delightful garden." Thus used, it is 
called the superlative of eminence, and is commonly translated 
with the article a, or an ; — when comparison is implied, the 
article the must be used. 

111. — The Comparative is always of the third declension, 
and declined like mitior (99-4). The Superlative is always 
of the first and second, and declined like bonus (98-1). 

112.— RULES OF COMPARISON. 

1. The comparative is formed from the root of 
the positive (56), by adding ior for the mas- 



64 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



§ 25 



culine and feminine, and ins for the neuter; 
as, 



Positive. 



Eoot. 



Comparative. 
Masc. Fern. Neut. 

Durus, hard, dur- dur-ior, dur-ior, dur-ius, harder, 
Brevis, short, brev- brev-ior, brev-ior, brev-ius, shorter. 
Audax, bold, audac- audac-ior, audac=ior, audac-ius, bolder. 

2. The superlative is formed from the root of 
the positive, by adding issimus, a, um / as, 



Positive. 



Eoot. 



Superlative. 

Durus, hard, dur- dur-issimus, a, urn, hardest 
Brevis, short) brev- brev-issimus, a, um, shortest 
Audax, bold) audac- audac-issimus, a, urn, boldest 

Exc. If the positive end in er, the superlative 
is formed by adding rimas, a, um, to the nomi- 
native masculine, i. e. to the root uncontracted : as, 



Positive. 




Superlative. 




Pulcher, fair 


) pulcher-rimus, a, um. 




Pauper, pooi 


\ pauper-rimus, a, um. 




Hence these adjectrv 


r es are compared thus : 




Durus, durior, 


durissiruus ; 


Hard, harder, 


hardest 


Brevis, brevior, 


brevissimus ; 


Short, short e? 


shortest 


Audax, audaeior, 


audacissmrus ; 


Bold, ■ bolder, 


boldest. 


Pulcher, pulchrior, 


pulcherrimus ; 


Fair, fairer, 


fairest. 


Pauper, pauperior, 


pauperrimus ; 


Poor, poorer 


poor^H 


In the 


same manner 


compare : 




Altus, high. 


Firnius, strong. 


Liber, free. 




Capax. capacious. 


Fortis, brave. 


Piger, slow. 




Creber, frequent. 


Gravis, heavy. 


Prudens, prudent 


i 


Dignus, worthy. 


Integer, entire. 


Sapiens, wise. 




Doctus, learned. 


Lentus, slow. 


Vehemens, vehement 


Felix, happy. 


Levis, light. 


Velox. swift. 





§26 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



65 



113.— § 


26. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPAR1- 






SONS. 








Pos. 


Com p. 


Sup. 








Bonus, 


melior, 


optimus ; 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Magnus, 


major, 


maximus ; 


Great, 


greater, 


greatest 


Mai us, 


pejor, 


pessimus ; 


Bad, 


worse, 


worst 


Multus, 


plus, n. 


plurimus ; 


Much, 


more, 


most 


Parvus, 


minor, 


minimus ; 


Little, 


less, 


least 



Obs. Plus has only the neuter in the singular, 
plural, it is regular, and is declined as 99-4. Exc. 



In the 



1. The following adjectives form the superlative in limus . 



Faellis, easy, 


facilior, 


facillimus. 


Gracilis, lean, 


gracilior, 


graeillimus. 


Hum T1 is, low, 


humilior, 


humiiliinus. 


Imbecillis, weak, 


imbecillior, 


imbeciliimus. 


Simihs, like, 


similior, 


simiUimus. 



2. The following adjectives have the comparative regular, 
but the superlative irregular. 



Citer, near, 


citerior, 


citimus. 


Dexter, right, 


dexterior, 


dextiunus. 


Exter, outward, 


exterior, 


extremus, or extimus. 


Infer us, low, 


inferior, 


inf imus, or imus. 


Interus, inward, 


interior, 


intimus. 


Maturus, ripe, 


maturior, 


maturrimus, or maturissimus. 


Fosterus, behind, 


posterior, 


postremus, or postumus. 


Sinister, left, 


sinisterior, 


sinistimus. 


Superus, high, 


superior, 


supremus, or summus. 


Vetus, old. 


yeterior, 


veterrimus. 



Note. — Dives, rich, has commonly ditior, ditissbmts, for its comparative 
and superlative ; contracted for divitior and divitisslmus. 

3. Compounds in dicus, fieus, loquus, and volus. form the 
comparative in entior, and the superlative in entissimits. 



Benef Icus, beneficent, 
Benevolus, benevolent, 
Magniloquus, boasting, 
Maledicus, railing, 
Mirificus, wonderful, 



beneflcentior, 

benevolentior, 

magniloquentior, 

maledicentior, 

mirificentior, 



benefieentissimus. 
benevolentissimus, 
magniloquentissimua 
malediceatifisimus. 

mirificenti sslmus. 



66 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. § 26 

Note. — Mir if ic us has also mirificissbnus in the superlative. The corn- 
pounds of loquus are not found in the superlative. 

4. The following adjectives want the positive : 

Deterior, worse, deterrimus. Propior, nearer, proximus. 

Ocior, swifter, ocissimus. Ulterior, farther, ultimus. 

Prior, former, primus. 

5. The following adjectives want the comparative : 

Inclytus, renowned, inclytissimus. Nuperus, late, nuperrimus. 

Invictus, invincible, invictissimus. Par, equal, parissimus. 

Meiitus, deserving, meritissimus. Persuasus, persuaded, persuasissimus, 

"Novus, new, novissimus. Sacer, sacred, sacernmus. 

6. The following adjectives want the superlative : 

Adolescens, young, adolescentior. Opimus, rich, opimior. 

Diuturnus, lasting, diuturnior. Pronus, bending down, pronior. 

Ingens, huge, ingentior. ^t\xr, full, saturior. 

Juvenis, young, j*mior. Senex, old, senior. 

Note. — The superlative of juvenis, or adolescens, is supplied by minimus 
ndtu, the youngest ; senex takes maximus ndJu, the oldest. 

7. Almost all adjectives in ills (penult long), alls, and bills. 
want the superlative ; as, civllls, civil, civilior; regalis, regal, 
regalior; flebilis, lamentable, jlebilior. 

Note. — Some adjectives of these terminations have the superlative also ; 
as wqudlis, frugdlis, hospitdlis, liberdlis, vocdlls — affabilis, amabilis, kahilis, 
ignobilis, mirabilis, mobilis, mutabilis, nobilis, stabilis. 

Some adjectives of other terminations also want the superlative ; as, arcd- 
nus, ior, secret ; decllvis, ior, bending downwards ; longinquus, far off, ior; 
propmquus, near, ior; salutdris, healthful, salutarior. 

Anterior, former, and sequior, worse, are found only in the comparative. 

Nequam, worthless (indeclinable), has nequior, nequissimus. 

8. Many adjectives have no degrees of comparison at all, 
because they denote invariable qualities. They are such as 
denote substance, origin, possession, or definite time ; as, aureus, 
adamanfinus ; — Gracus, Romanus, peregrinus ; — paternus, eqiri- 
iu's; — a;stlvus, hibemus, vlvus, &c. 

9. Many adjectives which do not denote invariable qualities, 
are yet without comparative and superlative forms. They are — 

1st. Adjectives ending in imus, inus, drus, and most adjectives in Ivus ; 
as, legitimus, matutlnus, canorus, fugitlvus : also adjectives in us after a 
vowel ; as, dubius, idoneus, arduus, &c. ; except adjectives in quus, in which, 
however, the first u does not form a syllable (8-2) ; and sometimes assiduus, 
egregius, plus, strenuus ajd vacuus, which are also regularly compared. 



§ 27 DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

2d. Compound adjectives, one of whose component parts is a noun or a 
verb ; as, versicolor, pest\fer y degener, magnanimics, co7i$o?ius,fcedifragus,&o., 
and such as have the derivative terminations wus, tdus, ulus, alis, llis, 
buitdus ; as, modicus, trepidus, gurruhis, ?nortdlis, hostllis, furibundus, <Src. 

3d. Diminutives, which in themselves imply a sort of comparison ; as, 
tenellus, somewhat tender ; majusculus, somewhat big. 

4th. Many adjectives which cannot be classed under distinct heads ; as, 
albus, white ; ahnus, gracious ; egenas, needy ; lacer, torn ; rnemor, mindful ; 
mlrus, wonderful ; prcecox, early ripe ; sospes, safe ; and many others noted 
in the dictionaries. 

In most, or in all adjectives of these classes, and sometimes 
in others also, the comparative is made by prefixing magis, 
more ; and the superlative by prefixing valde or maxime, most, 
to the positive; as, arduus, high; magis arduus, higher; valcle, 
or maxime arduus, highest, or very high. Sallust has maxime 
tutos. 

10. Comparison is sometimes made by means of the pre- 
positions prce, ante, prceter, or supra, with the positive; as, 
Prce nobis beatus, happier than we, Cic; Ante alias insignis, 
most distinguished, Liv. A high degree of quality wdthout 
comparison is expressed by prefixing valde, imprimis, apprlme, 
admbdum, &c, or by the preposition per or prce prefixed in 
composition. 

11. The force of the comparative is increased by prefixing 
etiam, even, yet, and of both comparative and superlative, by 
prefixing longe or multo, far, much ; as, multo melior, much 
better ; longe nobilissimus, far the noblest. Quam with the 
superlative renders it emphatic; as, quam doctisswius, extremelv 
learned ; quam celerrime, as speedily as possible. 



§ 27. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

114. — Derivative adjectives are formed chiefly from nouns, 
from other adjectives, and from verbs. 

1. Those derived from nouns are called Denominatives. 
They are such as aureus, golden ; capitalis, capital, relating to 
the life; puerllis, boyish; animosus, full of courage, &c, from 
aurum, caput, puer, animus, &c. 

2. Those derived from adjectives are also called denomina/ 



68 pronouns. § 28 

tives ; they are chiefly diminutives ; as, dulciculus, sweetish ; 
duriusculus, somewhat hard, &c, from dulcis, durus, &c. 

3. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Verbal adjec- 
tives. They commonly end in bundus, idus, bills, ilis, itius, 
and ax; as err aburi dus, giv en to wandering ; rapidus, rapid ; 
credibilis, credible ; fexibilis, easy to be bent ; jictitius, feigned ; 
cdpax, capacious, &c, from erro, rapio, credo, fee to, jingu, 
capio, &c. 

4. Participles divested of the idea of time, and expressing 
merely a quality, become adjectives, and are capable of com- 
parison ; as, avians, fond of; amantior, amantissimus ; doctus, 
learned ; doctior, doctissimus. These are called Participial 
adjectives. 

Adjectives are als€> derived from adverbs and prepositions ; 
as, hodiernus, contrarius, &c, from hodie, contra, &c. 



§ 28. PRONOUNS. 

115. — A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

116. — In Latin, there are eighteen simple pronouns, namely, 
Eyo, tu, sui; ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui ; mens, luus, suus, 
noster, v ester ; nostras, vestras and cujas. 

Of these, Ego, tu, sui, are substantive or personal pronouns, 
the rest are adjectives. 

SUBSTANTIVE OR PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

117. — The Substantive or Personal pronouns, have the same 
accidents as nouns (34) ; in construction, they take the gender 
and number of the nouns for which they stand, and are thus 
declined : 

Ego, /, First Person, Masc. or Fern. 





Singular. 




Plural. 


N. ego, 




i, 


N. nos, we, 


G. mei, 




of me, 


67. nostrum, or nostri,* of us, 


D. mihi, 




to me, 


D. nobis, to us, 


Ac. me, 




me, 


Ac. nos, us, 


V. 

Ab. me, 






y 


with, 


&c., me, 


Ab. nobis, with, &c, us. 



* Nostrmn, mstrum, G. subjective ; nostri, vestri, G. objective. 334. 



§ 28 



PRONOUNS. 



Tu, thou, Second Person, Masc. or Fern. 



Singular. 
JV". tu, thou, or you, 

G. tui, of thee, or of you, 

D. tibi, to thee, or to you, 

Ac. te, thee, or you, 

V. tu, thou, or v/om, 



Plural. 
Jf. vos, ?/£, or you, 

G. vestrum, or vestri, of you, 
D. vobis, to you, 

Ac. vos, you, 

V. vos, ye, or yow, 



^46. te, with, &c, */*e<?, or you, Ab. vobis, with, &c, yow. 



Sui, o/ himself of herself, of itself, Third Person, 
Masc, Fern., Neut. Reflexive. 



N. 

G. sui, 
D. sibi, 
Ac. se, 



Singular. 



of himself &c, 

to himself &c, 

himself, &c., 



u4^>. se, wz7A, &c, himself, &c, 



PluraL 

iV. 

6*. sui, of themselves, 

D. sibi, to themselves, 

Ac. se, themselves, 

V. 

^46. se, m^A, &e., themselves. 



1 18.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In all speech, three things are implied, the person speak- 
ing, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of. 
These are called, in Grammar, the First, Second, and Third 
persons ; and the pronouns representing them are called Per- 
sonal Pronouns. 

2. The pronoun of the first person is Ego, I ; of the second, 
Tu, thou or you ; of the third, Sui, of himself, of herself, of 
itself. Also the adjective pronouns, ipse, ille, iste, is, and hie, 
withoirFa substantive, in the gender of the nouns represented 
by them, and with the general meaning of he, she, it, may be 
called Substantive or Personal Pronouns. 

Note 1. — The plural of the first person is often used for the singular, i. e. 
nos for ego ; so also noster for rnez/s ; and the verb, without the pronoun ex- 
pressed, is sometimes used in the first person plural for the first person 
singular ; but the plural of the second person is not used for the singular, as 
in English. 

Note 2. — " Thou " and " thee," are used as the rendering of tu and its cases 
in the singular, only in solemn addresses, or to mark special emphasis or 
contempt. In ordinary discourse, it is translated by "you." See Eng. 
Gram., 114. 4. An., and'Pr. Gr., 244 and 245. 

3. The personal pronouns of the third person, though all 



70 PEONOUNS. § 23 

translated by one term in English,* differ from one another 
in meaning and use, as follows : 

1st. Sui, the substantive pronoun of the third person, is without the 
nominative, as the third person (in English he, she, it, they) is not usually 
expressed in Latin in the nominative, but is implied in the third person of 
the verb. But if it is to be expressed, a demonstrative pronoun, commonly 
Me, is used The other cases of the English pronouns of the third person, 
not reflexive, are expressed by the oblique cases of is, ea, id, the nomina- 
tive of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns. Sui, sibi, se, are 
used in a reflexive sense referring, as a substitute, to the main subject of 
the sentencef in which they occur ; as, Laudai se, " He praises himself;" 
Cato se occldit, " Cato killed himself" Cato dixit se esse Ccesare feliciorem, 
" Cato said that he (Cato) was happier than Caesar." Puer putat hoc sibi 
nocere, " The boy thinks 'that this hurts him " (the boy). Proculus Julius 
dixisse fertur a se visum esse Romulum, " Proculus Julius is reported to 
have said that Romulus was seen by Azm"(Julius). But when the pro- 
noun refers to another word, and there is a transition from the principal 
to a subordinate subject, the oblique cases of is, ea, id, must be used. 
Thus, if the words that he, him, by him, in the last three propositions, re- 
ferred to any other than Cato, or the boy, or Proculus ■ Julius, they would 
have to be made, in the first sentence, by eum ; in the second, by ei ; and 
in the third, by ab eo. 

Exc. Sui, and its' corresponding possessive pronoun suus, are sometimes 
used when the reference is not to the primary, but to a subordinate sub- 
ject ; but this is never done by good writers when it would cause ambiguity. 
The most common cases of this usage are : — 1st. When the primary sub- 
ject is in the first or second person, to which, of course, sui, being the third, 
cannot refer ; as, ilium occidi suo gladio, " I slew him with his own sword" 
2d. After quisque or unusyuisque ; as, suum cuique tribmint," they give 
every man his own." 3d. When the word to which suus refers stands im- 
mediately or almost immediately before it ; as, hunc elves sui ex urbe eje- 

* The want of different pronouns of the third person, in English, is 
frequently the cause of ambiguity, which never can occur in Latin or Greek. 
Thus, if we say : ' : Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends ;" 
it is impossible to tell, from this sentence, whose friends are meant, — whether 
those of Lysias or of his father. If the former, k 'his,'' in Latin, would be 
suos; if the latter, " ejus, 11 and if the latter in a special manner, " ipsius." 

+ The main subject is generally the nominative to the leading verb, as in 
the above examples. Sometimes, however, the construction requires it to 
be in a different case ; as, Ab Antonio admonitus sum ut mane sibi adessem; 
here, the leading subject is Antonio in the Ablative, and to this, of course, 
sibi refers ; so in the following : Est libido homini suo amino obsequi, the 
principal subject is homini. 



§ *28 pboxouxs. 71 

cerunt, " his fellow citizens banished him from the city." 4th. When the 
noun with which suus agrees is coupled with another by cum ; as, emn 
cum suis rebus dimiscrunt, "they dismissed him with his effects." 

2d. Ipse is applicable to any of the three persons, and, in the nominative 
case, is used when either the primary or the subordinate subject is again 
introduced with emphasis in a subsequent or subordinate clause, or in the 
next sentence; as, Lycurgus nihil ulla lege in alios sanxit, cujus non ipse 
primus in se documcnta ddret, "Lycurgus bound nothing by any law upon 
others, of which he did not first give an instance in himself ;" here ipse 
refers to Lycurgus, the primary subject. In the following sentence, ipsi 
refers to the subordinate, and ipse to the principal subject: Ccesar ad 
prcefectos — mittit qui nunciarent ne hostes prodio lacesserent ; et si ipsi 
(prosfecti) lacesserentur, sustinerent quoad ipse [Ccesar) accessisset. Caesar, 
B. G. IV, 11. 

In the oblique cases, ipse hardly ever refers to the main subject (this 
being the proper office of sui), but to the subordinate, when that is to be 
expressed with emphasis, and distinguished from the primary or any 
other subject previously expressed; as, Senatus dixit non sua negligentia 
sed ipsius {Pompeji) subito adventu factum, " The senate said that it hap 
pened not through any negligence on their part, but owing to his (Pom 
pey's) sudden arrival." Instances, however, occur in which the oblique 
cases refer to the principal subject ; but these are rare, and such as to 
create no ambiguity. 

Note. — When joined with the personal pronouns ego, tu, <fec, used in a 
reflexive sense, and in an oblique case, ipse commonly agrees with the subject 
of the verb in the nominative or accusative, but is always to be translated 
with the oblique case, to which it adds the force of the word " self," or 
simply emphasis : thus (the subject being in the nominative), se ipse (not 
ipsum) mterfecit, **he slew himself ;" mihi ipse (not ipsi) faveo, "I favor 
myself;" virtus est per se ipsa (not ipsam) lauaabilu, — with the accusative as 
a subject; credis mild ipsum (not ipsi)/avere. Yet, when, for the vrord in 
the oblique case, special emphasis is required bv antithesis or other cause; 
ipse is put in the case of the pronoun ; as, Alios amas, te ipjsum (not t,j*se) 
odistii, " Others thou lovest, thyself thou hatest." 282. 

3d. Is, hie, iste, ille, without a substantive, in all genders, are used as 
pronouns of the third person, and are all rendered he, she, or it, as the 
word which they represent may require. In the nominative, they are 
applicable equally to the main or to the subordinate subject ; but in the 
oblique cases, with few exceptions, they refer to the subordinate only. 
It must be carefully noticed, however, that though often rendered by the 
same term in English, still each word has its own specific meaning and 
use, as follows : 

Is simply refers to some person or thing mentioned before, and is less 



72 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. § 29 

emphatic and distinctive than any of the other terms. Before qui (is qui, 
he who), it refers to the person or thing described in the relative clause, 
and, in this construction, is often understood. 

Hie is used in reference to objects which are nearest to the speaker 
Hence, as nothing is nearer to the speaker than himself, hie homo, " this 
man," is often the same as ego. Hie is therefore called the demonstrative 
pronoun of the first 'person. 

Iste refers to the person spoken to, or to the things pertaining to, or 
connected with him. Thus, iste liber, means " that book of thine," or " thy 
book." Hence it is called the demonstrative of the second person. It is 
often used, like the English thou, as an expression of worthlessness or con- 
tempt. An. and Pr. Gr., 244. 

Me, in opposition to hie, refers to obj ects at a distance from the speaker, 
or to that about which he is speaking to another, and is called the demon- 
strative of the third person. As substantive pronouns, then, these three 
words may be thus distinguished : 

Hie means "he," namely, this man near me, or. just spoken of. 

Iste means " he," namely, that man by you, or of whom you spoke. 

Ille means " he," namely, that man at a distance, or formerly spoken o£ 

In the use of these pronouns, however, these distinctions are not always 
strictly observed ; ille and is especially, are often used indiscriminately, 
and in the same sentence, apparently for the sake of euphony or variety 
of expression. 

4. The personal pronouns are rendered emphatic by an- 
nexing the definite ipse, or the syllable met or te, separately or 
variously combined ; as, ego ipse, egomet, tute, tutemet, nosmet- 
ipsi, &c. Se, the accusative and ablative of sui, is often 
doubled, as sese. When the preposition cum is used with the 
ablative of the personal pronouns, it is commonly annexed ; 
as, mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, &c. 

5. In the accusative plural with inter, or after a transitive active verb, 
with invicem, se is used as a reciprocal pronoun ; as, Fratres inter se similes, 
" Brothers like each other." Brutus et Aruns se invicem occiderunt, 
" Brutus and Aruns slew each other." 



§ 29. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

119. — Adjective Pronouns are words used 
sometimes like adjectives, to qualify a substantive ; 



§ 30 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 73 

and sometimes like pronouns, to stand instead of 
nouns. They are declined with three genders, to 
agree with substantives in these Occidents. 

120. — Adjective Pronouns may be divided 
\-nto Possessive, Demonstrative, Definite, Relative^ 
Interrogative, Indefinite, and Patriot. 



§ 30. I. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

121 — The Possessive Pkonothsts denote posses- 
sion, and are derived from the substantive pro- 
nouns as follows : 

Meus, a™ urn. my, my own, from me. 

Tuus, a, um, thy, thy own, " tu. 

Sims, a, um, his, her, its, his own, &c, " sui. 

Noster, tra, trum, oar, our own, " nos. 

Vester, tra, trum, your, your own, " vos. 

Obs. 1. In signification, possessive pronouns correspond to 
the genitive of their primitives, for which they may be con- 
sidered as a substitute ; thus, frater mei, " the brother of 
me," and meus frater, " my brother," mean the same thing, 
and hence they are often connected with, and may be rendered 
as, the genitive; as, suo popuhque Romani beneficio, "by the 
kindness of himself and of the Roman people." Goes. Hence, 
also, the genitive of the adjective is often put with the posses- 
sive pronoun in any case qualifying the substantive implied 
in it ; as, tuo ipsius amlco, " with thine own friend." Mea 
uni.us opera. ;i through the agency of me alone." Vestra ipso- 
riiui causa hoc feci, &c. ; — and hence, also, a substantive in 
apposition with the possessive pronoun is put in the genitive ; 
as, tuum hominis simpllcis pectus vidimus. 

Obs. 2. In form, possessive pronouns are regular adjectives 
of the first and the second declension. Meus, tuus, and suus, 
are declined like bonus, 98-1 ; except that meus has mi, 
seldom meus, in the vocative singular masculine. Noster and 
vester are declined like ater, 98-3. 

Obs. 3. Suits, like its primitive sui (118-3, Exc), is used in a reflexive 

f 4 



74 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



31 



sense, referring to the main subject of the sentence, and must De rendered 
into English in the gender and number of that subject, withont regard to 
the noun with which it stands ; thus, sua?n rem familiarem perdiderunt, 
ki they squandered their property ;" here suam, though singular, to agree 
with rem, must be rendered " their," because it refers to the plural subject 
of perdiderunt. Ilia suosfratres dilexit, " she loved her brothers." 

When the reference is not to the main subject, but to some other person 
or thing, the possessive is expressed in Latin, not by suus, but by the 
genitives of ille, ipse, iste, is, and hie ; thus, ejus rem familiarem rapuerunt y 
" they plundered his property." Suos amicos amat, means " he loves hip 
own friends ;" ejus amicos amat, is " he loves his friends," meaning (not his 
own, but) the friends of some other person to whom ejus refers. 

Obs. 4. The ablative singular of the possessive pronouns, especially suo 
and sua, frequently take the suffix pte, equivalent to the English word 
own; as, suapte mtinu, u with his own hand ;" and, in the same sense, all 
the cases of suus take the suffix met, usually followeii^v ipse ; as, Han- 
nibal, suamet ipse fraude captus, abiit, "Hannibal, being foiled by his own 
device, departed." 



§ 31. II. DEMONSTRATIVE PEONOUNS. 

122. — Demois t steatiye Pkojtoujsts are such as 
point out with precision a person or thing already 
known. 



They are 


hie, this ; ille, iste, 


is, that. They are d 


eclined a 


follows : 










1. 


Hie, 


H^EC, HOC, 


this; Plural, these. 






Singular. 




■ Plural. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Masc Fern. 


Neut 


N. hie, 


haee, 


hoc, 


N. hi, fiae, 


haee, 


G. hujus, 


hujus, 


hujus, 


G. horum, harum, 


horum, 


D. huie, 


huie 


huie, 


D. his, his, 


his, 


Ac. hunc, 


hanc, 


hoc 


Ac. hos, has, 


ha)c, 


V. hie, 


haee, 


hoc, 


V. hi, has, 


hsec, 


A b. hoc, 


hac, 


hoc, 


Ab. his, his, 


his. 



Note. — Some suppose that the original form of this pronoun was like, haee, 
hoce, some cases of which still remain ; that the present form was attained by 
dropping final e, and that this, and not niece, hcecce, &c, is the proper em- 
phatic form of the word. It is certain, however, that most writers and 
(trammarians prefer the double c } as hicce, Ac. See Obs. 3. 



§ 31 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 



75 



2. Ille, illa, illud, that; Plural, those. 

Plural. 

Masc. Fem* Neat. 

N. illi, illae, illa, 

G. illorum, illarum, illorum, 

D. illis, illis, illis, 

Ac. illos, illas, illa, 

V. illi, fllae, illa, 

Ab. illis, illis, illis. 

Note. — Virgil has olli, as a dative singular, and nominative plural; and 
<Hcero, in an antique formula, has olla and olios, from an ancient form ollus. 

Iste, " that," is declined like ille. 
3. Is, ea, id, that; Plural, those. 





Singular. 




Masc 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. ille, 


illa, 


illud, 


G. illius, 


illius, 


illius,* 


B. illi, 


illi, 


illi, 


Ac. ilium, 


illam, 


illud, 


V. ille, 


illa, 


illud, 


Ab. illo, 


illa, 


illo, 







Singular. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


is, 


ea, 


id, 


G. 
D. 


ejus, 
ei, 


ejus, 
ei, 


ejus, 
ei, 


Ac 


eum, 


earn, 


id, 


V. 


— 


— 


. 


Ab 


. eo, 


ea, 


eo, 



Plural. 
Fern. 



Neut. 



Masc. 
N. ii, ese, ea, 

G. eorum, earum, eorum, 
D. iis or eis, iis or eis, iis or eis, 
Ac. eos, eas, ea, 

Ab. iis or eis, iis or eis, iis or eis. 

4. From is, and the syllable dem, is formed idem, eadem, 
idem, " the same," which is thus declined : 



Masc. 
N. idem, 
G. ejusdem, 
D. eidem, 
Ac. eundem, 
V. idem, 
Ab. eodem, 

N. iidem, 

G. eorundem, 



Singular. 

Fern. 
eadem, 
ejusdem, 
eidem, 
eandem, 
eadem, 
eadem, 

Plural. 

esedem, 
earundem. 



D. eisdem, or iisdem, &c, 
Ac. eosdem, easdem, 

V. iidem, esedem, 

Ab. eisdem, or iisdem, &c. 



Neut. 
idem, 
ejusdem, 
eidem, 
idem, 
idem, 
eodem. 



eadem, 
eorundem, 

eadem, 
eadem, 



* See . 98, Note 2. 



76 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 81 

123.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. When two persons or things are spoken of, ille refers to 
the former, and hie to the latter. This order, however, is 
sometimes reversed. When three are spoken of. ille refers to 
the first ; iste, to the intermediate ; and hie, to the last. 

2. Hie means " this," referring to something near the speaker 
or just spoken of. Ille, " that," refers to something at a dis- 
tance or before spoken of; sometimes to what is well known 
and celebrated, and therefore regarded as present ; as, Medea 
ilia, " the well known Medea :" Alexander ille, " the illustrious 
Alexander." Iste, " that," refers to something near, or belong- 
ing to, or some way connected with the person spoken to. 

a. Is, " that," is less precise in its reference than the other 
demonstratives. It commonly refers simply to a person or 
thing as mentioned before. — Sometimes it points out that 
which is to be further described in a relative clause ; as, ea 
legione qilam secum habebat, " with that legion which he had 
with him." — Sometimes after et, atque, que, and in a negative 
clause after nee, it is used to show that the noun referred to 
receives an additional predicate ; as, in una domo, et ea quidem 
angusta, " in one house, and that, too, a small one :" Adoles- 
centes aliquot, nee ii tenui loco orti, " some young men, and 
these not of humble origin." The neuter {et id, idque) is 
used when the proposition itself receives an addition, and may 
be rendered " and that too," " especially," equivalent to the 
Greek y.al ravra. 

b. Is (and sometimes hie and ille), before ut or qui, has the 
sense of talis, " such ;" as, neque tu is es qui (or ut) quid sis 
nescias, " neither art thou such a one as not to know what 
thou art." 

c. Idem, agreeing with the subject, but without a substan- 
tive, connects emphatically two predicates which belong to 
the same subject, and, when the predicates are similar, may 
be rendered " also," " and also ;" as, Cicero orator erat idemque 
philosophus, " Cicero was an orator and also a philosopher ;" 

Viros fortes eosdem bonos esse volumus, " we wish brave men 
to be also good." When the predicates are opposite, idem is 
translated by " yet," " and yet;" as, hoc elicit, negat idem i 7 lud, 
" he affirms this, yet (or, and yet) he denies that." 

3. Hie, and some cases of the other demonstratives, are 



§ 33 



RELATIVE PRONOUN. 



77 



rendered emphatic by adding ce; as, kicce, hnjusce, huncce, &c 
When ne interrogative is also added, ce is changed into ci; as^ 
hiccine, hoscine, &c. 122. Note. 

4. From ?7/e and iste with /u'c, are formed the compounds 
iV&c and istltic or zs^'c, used in some of the cases for ille and 
iste, but with greater emphasis. Those parts only are in use 
which end in c, as follows : 





Is tic 


is thus declined 






Singular. 


Plural 


Masc. 


Fein. 


Neut. Neut. 


N. is tic, 


istsec, 


istoc, or istuc, 


N - I ;<h 


Ac, istunc 


istanc, 


istoc, or istuc, 


Ac. \ ls1 


Ab. istoc, 


istac, 


istoc, 






Illic is declined in the same manner. 



§ 32. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 

124. — The Definite Pronoun ipse is used to 
give a closer or more definite signification of a 
person or thing; as, ad ipsam portam accessit, 
"he came up to the gate itself;" or "to the very- 
gate." It is thus declined : 







Singular. 








Plural. 






Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. 


ipse, 


ipsa, 


ipsum, 


N. 


ipsi, 


ipsse, 


ipsa, 


G. 


ipsius, 


ipsius, 


ipsius, 


G. 


ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsorum, 


D. 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


ipsi, 


D. 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


Ac 


ipsuni, 


ipsam, 


ipsum, 


Ac. 


ipsos, 


ipsas, 


ipsa, 


V. 









V. 









Ab 


. ipso, 


ipsa, 


ipso, 


Ab 


ipsis, 


ipsis, 


ipsis. 



§ S3. IV. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

125. — A Relative Pkonotot is one that re- 
lates to, and connects its clause with, a noun or 
pronoun before it, called the antecedent. 



78 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. § 34 

The simple relative qui is thus declined : 

Qui, qu^e, quod, who, which, that. 

Plural. 
Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut, 





Singular. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


N. qui, 


quae, 


G. cujus, 


CUJUS, 


D. cui, 


CHI, 


Ac. quern, 


quam. 


V. 





quod, 
cujus, 
cui, 
quod, 



N. qui, quas, quas, 

G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 
D. queis, or quibus, &c, 
Ac. quos, quas, quae, 

V. 

Ab. queis, or quibus, &c. 



Ab. quo, qua, quo, 

Note. — Quis aud qmis are sometimes used in the dative and ablative, instead 
of quibus. Cui is commonly regarded as one long syllable, but is sometimes 
used as two short ones {cui) ; so also the dative singular Mile, or huic. 122-1. 

(For the construction of the relative, see § 99.) 

Obs. 1. Qui is sometimes used for the ablative singular in 
all genders, seldom for the plural. To all forms of the abla- 
tive, cum is frequently annexed ; as, quocum, quibuscum, &c. 

Obs. 2. Quicunque, or quicumque, and qulvis, also used as 
relatives (293, Obs. 7), are declined like qui. 



§ 34. V. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 

126. — The Interrogative Pronoun is used in 
asking a question; as, Quis fecit? "Who 'did it?" 

The interrogatives are : 

^ . ? ' v icho ? what ? Ecquisnaru ? y is any one ? 

q - { \ Numquis ? ) 

Is - ' o > which ? what ? Cuius? wh ose? 

Quinam? \ ru • o * - V * * 9 

' Cujas « of what country e 

The simple interrogative quis is thus declined : 

Quis, Qii/E, quod, or quid? Who, which, what? 

Singular. 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut 


N. quis or qui, 


quas, 


quid or quod, 


G. cujus, 


CUJUS, 


CUJUS, 


D. cui, 


cui, 


CUI, 


Ac. quern, 


quam, 


quid or quod, 


V. 







Ab. quo, qua, quo, 



§ 34 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 79 

Plural. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. 

N. qui, quas, quae, 

G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 

D. queis or quibus, &c, 

Ac. quos, quas, quas, 

Ab. queis or quibus, &c. 
(For the inflection of the compound interrogatives, see 131-1 and 2.) 

127. OBSERVATIONS. 

1. All interrogative pronouns used in a dependent clause, 
and without a question, are indefinites (12S) ; as, nescio quis 
sit, " I know not who he is." In this sense, qui is often used 
for quis for the sake of euphony, when the following word 
begins with an s; as, qui sit aperit. " he shews who he is." 
So also such adjectives as quantus, qualis, &c. 

2. The interrogative quis is commonly used as a substantive 
without a noun following it; qui, as an adjective before a 
noun. Quis means " what man ?" or " Who ?" and. applies to 
both sexes ; — qui means " which man," and has its feminine 
quae. This distinction, however, is often disregarded, especially 
as mentioned in Obs. 1. But, in the neuter gender, quid is 
always used as a substantive, and governs its noun in the 
genitive; as, Quid /acinar is commisit ? " What crime has he 
committed?" Whereas, quod is always used as an adjective, 
and agrees with its noun; as, Quod /acinus commisit? 

Note.— Quid is often used elliptically thus : Quid ? " why V is for propter 

quid? — As an interrogative interjection at the beginning of a sentence, Quid,? 
is for Quid aisf Quid censes? So also the expressions Quid verff Quid, 
igltur ? Quid hum? <fcc, are to be supplied. After Quid-postea ? Quid turn? 
supply sequitur. Quid quod may be supplied thus : Quid dicam de eo quod ? 
"What shall I say about this, that, &c?" With Quid mulia? Quid plu- 
ra ? &c, supply dicam, " Why should I say much ?" &c. 

3. Cvjus, a, urn? "whose?" used instead of the genitive of 
quis, is defective. The parts in use are as follows : 

Singular. Plural. 

Masc. Fern. Neut. Masc. Fern. 

N. cujus, cuja, cujum, 



Ac. cujum, cujam, 

Ab. cuja. 



N. cuji, cup, 

Ac. cujas. 



80 COMPOUND PKONOUNS. § 37 

4. Cujas, " of what country," is declined like an adjective 
of one termination (99-1). Nom. cujas, gen. cujatis, &c. 



§ 35. VI. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

128. — The Indefinite Pronouns are such, as 
denote persons or things indefinitely. Besides the 
interrogatives used indefinitely (127-1), they are : 

Aliquis, some one. Quispiam, some one. 

Siquis, if any one. Umisquisque, each one. 

Nequis, lest any, no one. Quidam, a certain one. 

Quisque, each one, every one. Quilibet, ) 

_ . ~ . y any one you please. 

Quisquam, any one. Quiyis, ) 

(For the inflection of these, see 130-1, 2, 3.) 



§ 36. VII. PATRIAL PRONOUNS. 

129.- — The Patrial Pronouns are those which have reference 
to one's country. They are nostras, " of our country;" vestras, 
"of your country." They are both adjectives of one termina- 
tion. Nom. nostras, gen. nostrdtis, &c. (99-1.) 



§ 37. COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

130. — The Compound Pronouns all belong to some of the 
classes enumerated above. 

131. — In the compounds of qui and quis, qui is always the 
first part of the word compounded; quis is sometimes the first 
part, and sometimes the last. 

1. The compounds of qui are quic.umque, " whoever," " who- 
soever ;" quidam, " some ;" quilibet, qurvis, " any one " "whom 
you please." They are declined by adding the termination 
to the different cases and numbers of qui. 



§ 37 



COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 



81 



Masc. 
N. quicunque, 
G. cujuscunque, 

N. quicunque, 

G. quorumcunque, 



Quicunque, whoever, whosoever, whatsoever. 
Singular. 
Fern, 
quaecunque, 
cujuscunque, 

Plural, 
quaecunque, 
quarumcunque, 

So, 



Neut. 
quodcunque, 
cujuscunque, &c. 



quaecunque, 
quorumcunque, &c. 



Quldam, quaedam, quiddam, or quoddam. 

Quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet, or quo.dlibet. 

Quivis, quaevis, quidvis, or quodvis. 

Note. — Before dam, m is changed into n; as, qv^ndam, quorundam, &c. 

2. The compounds of quis, when quis is put first, are qui** 
nam? " who?" quispiam, quisquam, "any one ;" quisque, "every 
one ;" and quisquis, " whoever, whosoever." 



Quisnam, who, which, 


what ? 




Singular. 




Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


N. quisnam, 


quaenam, 


quidnam, or quodnam, 


G. cujusnam, 


cujusnam, 


cujusnam, 


D. cuinam, 


cuinam, 


cuinam, 


Ac. quemnam, 
V. 


quamnam, 


quidnam, or quodnam, 


Ah. quonam, 


quanam, 

Plural. 


quonam. 


N. quinam, 


quaenam, 


quaenam, 


G. quorumnam, 
D. quibusnam, 


quarumnam, 
quibusnam, 


quorumnam, 
quibusnam, 


Ac. quosnam, 

V. 

Ab. quibusnam, 


quasnam, 


quaenam, 


quibusnam, 


quibusnam. 




So decline : 




Quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam, or quodpiam. 
Quisquam, quaequam, quidquam, or quodquam. 
Quisque, quaeque, quidque, or quodque. 
Quisquis, quidquid, or quicquid. 



05s. 1. Quisquam has quenquam in the accusative, without 

4* 



82 



COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 



37 



the feminine. The plural is scarcely used ; quicque is also 
used for quidque. Quisquis, " whoever," has no feminine ter- 
mination except in the ablative ; and the neuter, only in the 
nominative and accusative. It is used as an indefinite adjec- 
tive pronoun ; and also instead of qulqui, not in use, as a 
double relative of the same meaning as quicunque. 131-1. 
The following are the parts in use : 



Masc. 
N. quisquis, 
Ac. quemquem, 
Ab. quo quo, 



Singular. 
Fern. 



Neut. 
quidquid, or quicquid, 
quidquid, or quicquid, 
quo quo. 



quaqua, 

The plural has the nominative masculine qulqui, and the 
dative quibusquibus. Quisquis is sometimes used for the femi- 
nine. 

3. The compounds of quis, when quis is put last, have qua 
in the nominative singular feminine, and in the nominative 
and accusative plural neuter. These are : 

Aliquis, some. RTumquis, whether any ? 

Ecquis, whether any ? Siquis, if any. 

Nequis, lest any. 

The last three are often written separately ; as, ne quis, num 
quis, si quis. These pronouns are thus declined : 

Singular. 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Neui. 


JV. aliquis, 


aliqua, 


aliquid, or aliquod, 


G. alicujus, 


alicujus, 


alicujus, 


D. alicui, 


alicui, 


alicui, 


Ac. aliquem, 


aliquam, 


aliquid, or aliquod, 


V. aliquis, 


aliqua, 


aliquid, or aliquod, 


Ab. aliquo, 


aliqua, 
Plural. 


aliquo. 


N. aliqui, 


aliquse, 


aliqua, 


G. aliquorum, 


aliquarum, 


aliquorum, 


D. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


Ac. aliquos, 


aliquas, 


aliqua, 


V. aliqui, 


aliquse, 


aliqua, 


Ab. aliquibus, 


aliquibus, 


aliquibus. 



Note. — Ecquis and siquis have sometimes qua in the nominative singular 
feminine. 



§ 38 THE VERB. 83 

Obs. 2. Some of these are twice compounded ; as, ecquis- 
nam, ecqucmam, ecquidnam, or ecquodaam, "whdl" uhusqvis- 

que, unaquceque, unumquidque, or unumquodque, " every one ; v 
genitive uniuscujusque, &c. The former is scarcely declined 
beyond the nominative singular, and the latter wants the 
plural. 

Obs. 3. All these compounds want the vocative, except quis- 
que, aliquis, quilibet. and quicunque. They have seldom, if 
aver, quels, but quibus in the dative and the ablative plural. 



§ 38. THE VERB. 

132. — A Verb is a word used to express the 
act, being, or state, of its subject. 

Obs. 1. The use of the verb, in simple propositions, is to 
affirm. That of which it affirms, is called its subject, and, if a 
noun or pronoun, it is usually in the nominative case. But 
when the verb is in the infinitive, its subject is put in the 
accusative. 

1. Verbs are of two kinds, Transitive, and In- 
transitive. 

Note. — These two classes comprehend all the verbs in any language. Ac- 
cording to this division, Transitive verbs include those only which denote 
transitive action ; i. e. action passing over from, or done by, one person or 
thing to another; and Intransitive verbs, those which have nothing transitive 
in their meaning, but which represent their subject in a certain state or con- 
dition, aud nothing more. For this purpose, not only are the terms Transi- 
tive and Intransitive more expressive and appropriate than Active and Aeuter, 
but their use relieves the term " Active ; " to be employed solely as the name 
of the form called the Active Voice ; and the term ''Neuter," to be appro- 
priated to the gender of nouns. 

2. A Transitive verb expresses an act done 
by one person or thing to another. It has 
two forms, called the Active, and the Passive 
voice. 135. 

3. An Intransitive verb expresses being, or a 
state of being, or action confined to the actor. It 
is commonly without the passive form. 



84 THE VEKB. § 38 

Obs. 2. The verbs that express being simply, in Latin, are 
sum, fio, existo, signifying, in general, " to be," or " exist." 
The state of being expressed by intransitive verbs may be a 
state of rest, as dormio, " I sleep ;" or of motion, as cado, " I 
fall;" or of action, as curro, " I run." 

Obs. 3. The action expressed by an intransitive verb does 
not, like the action expressed by a transitive verb, pass over 
from the agent or actor to an object. It has no immediate 
relation to any thing beyond its subject, which it represents in 
a certain state or condition, and nothing more ; and hence 
they may always be distinguished thus : — A transitive verb 
always requires an object to complete the sense; as, amo te, 
" I love thee;" — the intransitive verb does not, but the sense is 
complete without such an object ; as, sedeo, "I sit ;" curro, "I run." 
Obs. 4. Many verbs considered intransitive in Latin, are 
translated by verbs considered transitive in English; as,placeo, 
" I please ;" obedio, " I obey ;" credo, " I believe ;" &c. 

Obs. 5. Many verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and 
sometimes in an intransitive sense. Such are /agio, inclino, 
timeo, &c. ; as,fuge dextrum littus (tr.), "avoid the right hand 
shore;" tempus fug it (intr.), "time flies;" timeo Danaos (tr.), 
"I dread the Greeks;" timeo (intr.), "I am afraid." — In some, 
ine transitive and intransitive are distinguished by a difference 
in form and conjugation ; thus, jaeio, jaceo; pen do, pendeo; albo, 
albeo; fugo, fugio; placoq placeo; sedo, sedeo; &c. 

Obs. 6. Verbs usually intransitive assume a transitive sense, 
when a word of signification similar to that of the verb itself 
is introduced as its object ; as, vivere viiani, " to live a life ;" 
jurare jusjurandum, "to swear an oath." 

Obs. 7. When we wish to direct the attention, not so much 
to any particular act of the subject of discourse, as to the em- 
ployment or state of that subject, the object of the act — not 
being important — is omitted, and the transitive verb assumes 
the character of an intransitive ; thus, in the sentence, pner 
legit, " the boy reads," nothing more is indicated than the 
present state or employment of puer, "the boy," and the verb 
has obviously an intransitive sense : still, an object is neces- 
sarily implied, as he who reads must read something. But 
when we s&y puer legit Ilomerum, "the boy reads Homer," 
the attention is directed to a particular act, terminating on a 
certain object, " Homerum" and the verb has its proper 
transitive sense. 



§ 39 THE VERB. 85 

§ 39. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

133. — Though the ' division of verbs into Transitive and 
Intransitive comprehends all the verbs in any language, yet, 
from something peculiar in their form or signification, they 
are characterized by different names, expressive of this pecu 
liaiity. The most common of these are the following, viz : 
Regular, Irregular, Deponent, Common, Defective, Impersonal, 
Redundant, Frequentative, Inceptive, and Desiderative. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which the se- 
condary parts are formed from the primary, 
according to certain rules. 184. 

Note. — Under these are included Transitive, Intransitive, Deponent, and 
Common verbs belonging to the four conjugations. 

2. Irregular Verbs are those in which some 
of the secondary parts are not formed from the 
primary, according to rule. 221. 

3. Deponent Verbs under a passive form have 
an active signification. 207-1. 

4. Common Verbs under a passive form have 
an active or passive signification. 207-2. 

5. Defective Verbs are those in which some 
of the parts are wanting. 222. 

6. Impersonal Verbs are used only in the 
third person singular. 223. 

7. Redundant Verbs have more than one form 
of the same part. 225. 

8. Frequentative Verbs express repeated ac- 
tion. 227-1. 

9. Inceptive Verbs mark the beginning or 
continued increase of an action. 227-2. 

10. Desiderative Verbs denote desire or in- 
tention of doing. 227-3. The three last are al- 
ways derivatives. 226. 



86 THE VERB. — VOICE. § 41 

§ 40. INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

134. — To the inflection of Verbs belong Voices, 
Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

1. The Voices, in Latin, are two, Active and 
Passive. 

2. The Moods are four, tlie Indicative, Subjunc- 
tive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

3. The Tenses are six, the Present, Imperfect, 
Perfect, Pluperfect, Future, and Future-Perfect. 

4. The Numbers are two, Singular and Plural. 

5. The Persons are three, First, Second, and 
Tliird. 

6. Besides these, to the Verb belong, Partici- 
ples, Gerunds, and Supines. 

7. The Conjugation of a verb is the arrange- 
ment of its different moods,- tenses, &c, according 
to a certain order. Of these, in Latin, there are 
f mr, called the First, Second, Tliird, and Fourth 
Jonjugations. 1 8 4-1 — 3 . 

Obs. A few verbs in Latin are of more than one conjuga 
tion, and a few have some of their parts belonging to one 
conjugation, and others to another. 



§ 41. VOICE. 

135. — Voice is a particular form of the verb 
which shows the relation of the subject, or thing 
spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

The transitive verb, in Latin, has two voices, 
called the Active and the Passive. 

1 The Active Voice represents the subject of 



§ 41 THE VERR — VOICE. 87 

the verb as acting on some object ; as, amo te, "I 
love thee." 

2. The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
the verb as acted upon ; as, amdtv/r, " he is loved." 

1 36— OBSERVATIONS. 

1 . In both voices, the act expressed by the verb is the same, 
but differently related to the subject of the verb. In the 
active voice, the subject is the actor; in the passive, it is acted 
upon, as in the above examples. Hence, the same idea may 
be expressed with equal propriety in either voice, by simply 
changing the object of the active voice into the subject of the 
passive : thus, by the active voice, Ccesar vicit Galliam, " Caesar 
conquered Gaul ;" by the passive, Gallia victa est a Ccesdre, 
" Gaul was conquered by Caesar." 

This property of the transitive verb, enables the speaker or 
writer not only to vary his form of expression at pleasure, 
but also, by means of the passive form, to direct the attention 
to the act and the object acted upon, when the actor either is 
unknown, or, it may be, unimportant or improper to be men- 
tioned : thus, " America was discovered and inhabited before 
the days of Columbus." So also the attention may be directed 
by means of the active voice to the act and the actor, without 
regard to the object. See 132, Obs. 7. 

2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, do not admit a dis- 
tinction of voice. They are generally in the form of the ac- 
tive voice, but are frequently used in the third person singular, 
passive form, as impersonal verbs. 223-3. Deponent in- 
transitives, however, have the form of the passive. 

3. The passive voice, in Latin, is often used in a sense simi- 
lar to the middle voice in Greek, to express actively what its 
subject does to, or for itself; as, donee pan ci, qui prartio super- 
fuerant, paludibus abderextur, "till the few who had sur- 
vived the battle, concealed themselves in the marshes." Tag. 
The following are examples of the same kind : Columba — fer- 
tur in arva volans. Virg. — Nunc spicula vertunt infensi ; facta- 
pariter nunc pace feruxtur. Id. — E scopulo multa vix arte 
revulsus — ratem Sergestus agebat. Id. — Quis ignorat. ii, qui 
mathemo tici vocantur, in quanta obscuritate rerum — versextur. 
Cic. — Cum igitur vehementius ixveheretur in causam princi- 



88 THE VERB. — MOODS. § 42 

pum consul Philippus. Id. — Cum omnes in omni genere scele* 
rum volutentur. Id. 

Cireumdat nequidquam huraeris, et inutile ferrum 
Cixgitur, ac densos feetue morittirus in hostes. Vieg. 

In all such constructions, the words " a se " may be under 
stood after the verb. 



§ 42, MOODS. 

137. — Mood is the mode on manner of express- 
ing the signification of the verb. 

138. — The moods, in Latin, are four; namely, 
the Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In- 
finitive. 

139. — I. The Indicative Mood asserts the ac- 
tion or state expressed by the verb, simply as a 
fact, and generally in an independent clause ; as, 
scrlho, "I write;' 7 tern/pus fugit, "time flies." 

140. — Obs. 1. The indicative mood is sometimes used in 
dependent clauses with si, nisi, etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, to assert 
a fact as a condition or supposition ; as, si quid melius habes, 
arcesse. Or with ut or quum, " when," signifying time past ; 
as, Tempus fait quum homines vagabantur. Ut inquinavit cere 
tempus aureum. Hor. 

141. — Obs. 2. The indicative followed by si non, ni, nisi, is 
sometimes used potentially, to express, not what did take 
place, but what would have taken place if something else had 
not happened.; as, Tenus JEgyptum penetravit, nisi exercitus 
s'equi recusasset, " He would have penetrated as far as iEgypt, 
if the army had not refused to follow him. 55 624. 

142. — II. The Subjunctive Mood represents 
the action or state expressed by the verb, not as 
a fact, but only as a conception formed by the 
mind. It is generally used in dependent clauses 
in various ways, as follows : 



§ 42 THE VERB. — MOODS. 89 

1st. It represents the action or state expressed 
by it as conditional or contingent. 

Thus used, it corresponds to the English subjunctive, or to 
the indicative used subjunctively (An. and Pr. Gr., 386) ; as, 
si redeat, videbimus, "if he return, we shall see him." 

2d. It represents an action or state, as what 
may, can, will; might, could, would, or should, 
take place in certain circumstances. 

Thus used, it corresponds to the English potential (An. and 
Pr. Gr., 380) ; as, edimus ut vivamus, non vivimus ut edamus, 
" we eat that we may live— not live that we may eat ;" sig- 
num datum crederes, "you would suppose that the signal had 
been given." 

3d. It is used to express a fact in a dependent 
proposition, connected with the leading verb by 
an adverb, conjunction, relative, or indefinite 
term. 

Thus used, it is commonly rendered by the indicative in 
English ; as, nescit qui sim, " he knows not who I am." 

143. — Obs. 3. The subjunctive mood is sometimes used in 
an independent proposition, in order to soften the assertion 
made ; as, Nemo istud Mi concedat, " nobody probably would 
concede that to you." (625). 

144. — Obs. 4. The subjunctive is used also in independent 
propositions, to express a wish, desire, or command ; as, uti 
nam saperes, " O that thou wert wise;" quod bene vertat, "may 
it turn out well;" sic eat, " thus let her go ;" facias, "do it." 
See Obs. 5. 

145. — Obs. 5. When this mood is used in independent propositions, in 
a potential, optative, or imperative sense, still it ought to be regarded as 
strictly subjunctive, having the primary or leading clause evidently un- 
derstood, on which the meaning of the mood in each case depends. Thus 
" I may write," licet mild ut, or est ut scribam; " I shall, or will write." 
futurum est, or hit ut scribam; " I should write," oportet, cequum est ut, or 
est cur scriberem; " I should have written," oportebat, &C, ut scripsissem; 
" that they were wise," peropto utinam saperent; " may it turn out well. 



90 THE VERB. — MOODS. § 42 

precor quod bene vertat; "do it," fac ut facias; "let me do it," sine ut 
faciam, <fcc. 

Hence, it follows that the particular English auxiliary by which this 
mood should be translated, depends, not upon the form of the Latin verb, 
seeing scriberem for example, means equally, " I might, could, would, or 
should write," but upon the ellipsis to be supplied. What this is, must 
always be gathered from the connection and sense of the passage. 

146. — Obs. 6. From these observations, it will be manifest that the 
Latin subjunctive is in much more extensive use than either the subjunctive 
and potential mood in English, or the subjunctive and optative mood in 
Greek. Indeed, the proper use and management of this mood, constitute 
one of the greatest difficulties in this language. For the construction of 
this mood, see § 139. 

147. — Obs. 7. When the ideas of liberty, power, will, obligation, 
duty, &c., involved in the auxiliaries may, can, will, shall, 
might, could, would, should, &c.,- are to be expressed in an 
absolute, independent, and emphatic manner, the subjunctive 
mood is not used, but separate verbs expressing these ideas in 
the indicative mood. These are such as licet, volo, nolo> 
possum, clebeo, &c, thus : 

We will go, Ire volumus. 

They will not go, Ire nolunt. 

I may come, Mihi venire licet 

I can read, Legere possum. 

r Legere debes. 

Thou shouldst read, •] Tibi legendum est. 

' Te legere oportet. 
It might have been done, \ 

{absolutely and sometimes >• Fieri potuit. 

contingently.) ) 

148. — Obs. 8. The future indicative is frequently used m 
dependent and hypothetical clauses, and consequently in a 
subjunctive sense ; as, si jubebis faciam, " if you order me, I 
will do it;" equivalent to sijubeas, &c. 

149. — III. The Imperative Mood commands, 
exhorts, entreats, or permits ; as, scribe, " write 
thou ;" ito, " let him go.' 7 

150. — Obs. 9. The present subjunctive is very often used 
instead of th> imperative, especially in forbidding, after ns, 



§ 43 THE VERB.— TENSES. 91 

nemo, nullus, &c. ; as, valeas, " farewell ;" ne noceas piiero, 
" hurt not the boy." Obs. 4 and 5. Besides this, the future 
and future perfect indicative, aad the perfect subjunctive, are 
also used imperatively. See 167-1, 169-3, and 173-4. 

151. — Obs. 10. The imperative mood has two forms in the 
second person, both singular and plural, distinguished in theii 
meaning as present and future. The first, or shorter form 
commands to do presently ; as, scribe, " write now ;" — the se- 
cond, or longer form commands to do afterwards, or when 
something else shall have been done; as, scribito, " write here- 
after." This distinction, however, is not always observed. 

152. — IV. The Infinitive Mood expresses the 
meaning of the verb in a general manner, without 
any distinction of person or number ; as, scribere, 
" to write ;" scripsisse, " to have written ;" scrihi, 
" to be written." 



§ 43. TENSES. 

153. — Tenses are certain forms of the verb 
which serve to point out the distinctions of time. 

154. — Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and 
Future; and an action may be represented either as incom- 
plete and continuing, or as completed at the time spoken of. 
This gives rise to six tenses, which are expressed in Latin by 
distinct forms of the verb ; thus, 

p j Action continuing ; as, scrllo, "I write, I am writing." Present. 

r resent, -j Action completed ; as, scripsi, "I have written." Perfect. 

p ( Action continuing ; as, scribebam, "I was writing." Imperfect. 

AS * 1 Action completed ; as, scripseram, "I had written." Pluperfect. 
Fttttt e \ Action continuing ; as, scrioam, " I shall or will write." Future. 
R ' ( Action completed; as, scripsero, "I shall have written." Fut,~Pe?'f 

155. — -In order better to express the time and the state 
of the action by one designation, these tenses, arranged in this 
order, might properly be denominated the Present, the Present- 
perfect ; the Past, the Past-perfect ; the Future, and the Future- 
perfect. An. and Pr. Gr. 400. 



92 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 44 

§ 44. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

156. — The tenses of the indicative mood, in 
Latin, are six: the Present, the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, the Pluperfect, the Future, and the Fu- 
ture-perfect. 

157. — I. The Pkeseot tense expresses what is 
going on at the present time ; as, scrlho, " I write," 
or " I am writing;" domus cedificatur, "the house 
is building." 

This tense is rendered with all the variety of the present 
tense in English; as, I write, do write, am writing; — interro- 
gatively, do I write ? am I writing ? Like the English present 
also it is used : 

1 . To express what is habitual or always true ; as, qui cito 
dat, bis dat, " he w T ho gives promptly, gives twice." 

2. To express a general custom, if still existing ; as, apud 
Parthos signum datur tympdno, " among the Parthians, the 
signal is given by the drum." 

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the 
past tense, to represent a past event as if it were present be- 
fore us; thus (Livy), dido poruere, desiliunt ex equis, provolant 
in prlmum, &c, " they obeyed, they dismount, they fly for- 
ward to the front," &c. 

4. To denote an action which has continued for some time, 
and which still exists ; as, tot annos bella gero, " for so many 
years I have waged, and am still waging war." Also after 
dum it is used to express a past event which had some con- 
tinuance ; as, dum in Sicilia sum, nulla statua dejecta est, " so 
long as I was in Sicily," &c. 

5. With certain adverbs of time, it is sometimes used, as 
in English, to denote what is yet future; as, quam mox navigo 
Ephesum, " as soon as I sail, or shall sail, for Ephesus." 

6. In the passive voice, the present tense represents its 
subject as at present acted upon, or as the object of an action 
present and continuing, and is usually rendered into English 
by the verb to be, and the perfect participle, as amatur, " he is 
loved," and this rendering will always be correct when the 



§ 44 THE VERB. — TENSES. 93 

English verb in the present passive expresses continuance; as, 
he ins local, feared, hated, respected, &c. 

158. — 06s. But there are many verbs in which this rendering of the 
present would be incorrect, as it does not express the present receiving of 
an action, but rather the present and continuing effect of an act, which act 
itself is now past. In all such cases, it is more properly the rendering of 
the perfect than of the present, and it is often so used. Thus, domus ccdificcda 
est; opus peractum est; epistola scrip/a est, may be properly rendered, 
" the house is built ;" " the work is finished f "the letter is written ;" be- 
cause in the English, as well as in Latin, the building of the house, the 
finishing of the work, and the writing of the letter, are represented as 
acts now past, and which are present only in their effects. The proper 
rendering of such verbs in the present passive, in English, is by the verb 
to be, and the present participle in ing in the passive sense ; thus, domus 
cedijicatur, " the house is building ;" opus perogitur, " the work is finishing ;" 
epistola scribitur, " the letter is writing." When this mode of expression 
is not authorized, and when the other would be improper, it will be 
necessary to express the precise idea of the present by some other form 
of expression. See An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., App. V, I and II, p. 235. — Prin- 
ciples of Eng. Gr., App. XIX, p. 211. 

159. — II. The Imperfect tense represents an 
action or event as passing and still unfinished at 
a certain time past, expressed or implied ; as, 
domvm cedifiedbat, " he was (then) building a 
house ;" Ibam forte via sacra, " I was accidentally 
(viz. at the time spoken of,) going along the via 
sacra." 

160. — This tense, strictly speaking, corresponds to the past- 
progressive in English (An. and Pr. Eng. Gr., 474-2. — Prin- 
ciples of Eng. Gr., 199-2). It is often rendered, however, by 
the past tense in its ordinary form, and shonld always be so, 
when the verb expresses a continued act or state ; as, amabat, 
u he loved ;" timebat, " he feared." It is used in a variety of 
x ways, as follows : 

1. It is used to denote what was usual or customary at 
some past time ; as, scribebam, " I was accustomed to write." 

2. It is used to denote an action which had existed for some 
time, and was still existing at a certain past time ; as, tot an- 



94 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 44 

nos bella gerebam, " for so many years I had been, and then 
still was waging war." 

3. Sometimes it denotes an action desired, intended, or at- 
tempted, but not accomplished; as, Porsena eum terrebat, 
"Porsena attempted to frighten him." 

4. It is sometimes used hypothetically, instead of the im 
perfect or pluperfect subjunctive ; as, anceps certamen erat, nisi 
equites supervenissent, " the battle would have been doubtful, 
unless, &o." 141, and 624-5. 

5. The same observations made in 158, in reference to the 
present passive, are applicable in all their extent to the im- 
perfect; as, amabatur, "he was loved;" domus cedificabatur, 
" the house was building," not " was built," nor " was being 
built ;" opus peragebdtur, " the work was finishing," &c. 

161. — III. The Perfect tense is used in two 
different senses, Definite and Indefinite. 

162. — The Perfect-definite represents an action 
or event as completed at the present time, or in 
a period of time of which the present forms a 
part ; as, scrvpsi, u I have written f Tiujus ad me- 
moriam nostoam momimenta manserunt duo, " tw«"> 
monuments of him have remained to our time." 

163. — The Pet feet-indefinite represents an ac- 
tion or event simply as past ; as, scripsi, " I 
wrote." 

164. — The first, or Perfect-definite, corresponds to the English present 
perfect (An. and Pr. Gr., 407) ; — the second, or Perfect-indefinite, corres- 
ponds to the English past tense (An. and Pr. Or., 415). In this sense, it 
i3 commonly used in historical narratives like the Greek aorist; thus, Ccesar 
exercitum finibus Italice admovit, Rubicon transiit, Romam occupdvit, 
" Caesar marched his army," <fcc. 

1. This tense, used indefinitely, is sometimes coupled with 
the imperfect, the former denoting a transitory, the latter a 
continue^ ^action ; thus, Coniicuere omnes, intentlque ova tene- 
ts ant, " All were silent, and with eager attention kept their 
vyes fixed upon him." Virg. 

2. It is sometimes used like the present,, to express what is 



§ 44 THE VERB. — TENSES. 95 

true at any time; thus, Felix qui potuit rerum co b noscert 
causas, " Happy that man who was able to investigate the 
causes of things !" Vlrg. 

3. It is sometimes used in the sense of the pluperfect, ^; z . 
in narratives after such conjunctions as postquam, ubi, itbi 
primum, ut (when), ut primum, quum, quum prtmum, slmul 
ut, simul ac, &c, having the general meaning of the English 
"as soon as," when followed by a verb denoting past time ; 
as, Quce postqaam evolvit — lic/dvit, " After he had separated 
these things, — he bound them," &c. Ovid. 

4. It is also used poetically for the imperfect and the plu 
perfect of the subjunctive; as, nee veni, nisi, &c., "nor would 
I have come, unless," &c. (141, and 624-5.) 

5. In the passive form, this tense is compound, consisting 
of the perfect participle of the verb, and the present or perfect 
tense of sum as an auxiliary ; as, amdtus sum, or amdtus fui, 
" I have been loved." 

Note. — In all compound tenses, the participle must be in the same gender 
and number with the nominative to the verb. 

165. — IV. The Plupebfect tense represents an 

action as completed at, or before, a certain past 

time expressed or implied ; as, scripseram, " I had 

written." 

166. — This tense corresponds to the past-perfect in English, 
and is rendered by it. It bears the same relation to the per 
feet, that the imperfect does to the present. 

1. The pluperfect is sometimes used, especially by the 
poets, for the perfect indicative, and also for the pluperfect 
subjunctive ; as, dixeram a principio, ut de republica sileretur, 

.Cic, "I have said from the beginning," &c. ; Si mens non leeva 
fuisset, impulerat, &c, Yirg., " he would have impelled." (141, 
& 624-5.) The same idiom is found in English, " he had im- 
pelled" for " he would have impelled." 

2. In the passive form, this tense, like the perfect, is com- 
pound, consisting of the perfect participle, and the imperfect 
or pluperfect of sum used as an auxiliary ; as, amdtus eram, or 
amdtus fuer am, "I had been loved." 

Note. — In these compound forms, the participle seems to be considered 
sometimes as little different from an adjective. In such cases, sum becomes 
the verb, and is rendered by its own tense ; as, opus per actum est, 4> the work 
is finished ;" jinltus jam labor erat, " the labor was now finished.'' 1 



96 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 45 

167. — V. The Future tense expresses what will 
take place in future time; as, scribam, "I shall, 
or will write." 

1. This tense is sometimes used in the sense of the impe- 
rative ; as, Uques vlna, " nitrate the wine." Hor. 

2. The participle in tub, with the verb sum, is frequently 
used instead of the future, especially if purpose or intention is 
signified; as, scripiurus sum, "I am going to write." (214-8.) 

3. In the passive voice, the future tense expresses the future 
enduring of an act that will be going on hereafter ; as, domus 
cedijicabitur. " the house will be building." 

168. — VI. The Future-perfect intimates that 
an action or event .will be completed at, or before, 
a certain time yet future ; as, scripsero, " I shall 
have written f viz, at, or before, some future time 
or event. 

1. This tense, sometimes called the future subjunctive, 
properly belongs to the indicative mood, both in signification 
and construction. For the future subjunctive, see 170-1. 

2. Though the proper rendering of this tense be shall have, 
yet, generally, the have, or the shall, and frequently both, are 
omitted ; as, qui Antonium oppresserit, is helium confecerit, " he 
who shall cut off Antony, shall put an end to the war." 

3. This tense is also used imperatively ; as, memineris in, 
" remember thou ;" ille viderit, "let him see to it." 

4. The future perfect, in the passive voice, has two forms, 
made up of the perfect participle, and ero, orfuero. The first 
denotes the enduring of an act that will be completed in future 
time indefinitely ; as, domus cedijicdtu erit, " the house will be 
built;" the second denotes the enduring of an act to be com- 
pleted at, or before, a certain future time; as, domus cediftcdta 
fuerit, " the house will have been built.'' 



§ 45. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

169. — The tenses of the subjunctive mood are the Present, 
the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. 



§ 45 THE VERB. — TENSES. 97 

170 — 1. There is no distinct form of a future in the sub- 
junctive ; all the tenses of this mood sometimes incline to a 
future signification. But, when a future subjunctive is required, 
the future participle in rus, with the verb sum in the subjunc- x 
tive present, is used; as, liaud dulnto quin facturus sit, "I 
doubt not that he will do it." 

2. The tenses of the subjunctive mood, in Latin, like those 
of the potential, in English, are much less definite, in respect 
of time, than the tenses of the indicative, being modified by 
the time and meaning of the verbs, w r ith which they stand 
connected. 

3. All the tenses of the subjunctive mood, are often render- 
ed like the corresponding tenses of the indicative, 142, 1st. 
and 3d. 

17 1. — I. The Pkesent subjunctive is generally 
rendered by may or can, expressing present 
liberty, or ability; as, scrlbam, "I may write." 
But, 

1. This tense is often used in the sense of the imperative 
mood, to express a command, entreaty, or exhortation; as, 
amem 7 ~ u let me love." This use is commonly elliptical, 144, 
and 145. 

2. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes ren- 
dered as the imperfect, or perfect indefinite of the indicative ; 
as, quasi intelligant, " as if they understood." 

3. When a question is asked, it is frequently rendered as 
the indicative; as, Elbquar an sileam? "shall I speak, or be 
silent V Sometimes by should; as, singula quid referam, 
" why should I relate every thing V f Sometimes by would; as, 
In /acinus jurasse pities, "you would think they had sworn to 
commit wickedness." 

172. — II. The Impeefect subjunctive is com- 
monly rendered by the signs might, could, would, 
or shoidd, expressing past 'liberty, power, will, or 
obligation ; as, scriberem, " I might, could, would, 
or should write.' 1 

1. This tense may relate either to what is past, or present, 
or future ; as, si fata fuissent ut caderem, " if my destiny had 
been that I should fall ;" si possew., sanior essem, " If I could, 1 

5 



93 THE -VERB. — TENSES. § 45 

would be wiser ;" post hcec prcecipitem darem, " afterwards, 1 
would throw him down headlong." 

2. Sometimes, the imperfect is rendered as the pluperfect ; 
as, si quis diceret, nunquam puiarem, &c, " if any one had 
said it, I never would have thought," .&c. 

3. After a verb or clause denoting hindrance, the subjuno 
tive imperfect, and sometimes the present, with quominus, ne, 
may often be rendered by from with the present participle ; 
as, 

Si te tua infirmitas valetudmis tenuit, Quo minus ad ludos venires, " If 
your weak state of health has prevented you from coming to the games." 
So, Ne quis impediretur quo minus ejus rebus FRUERETUR,"That no one might 
be hindered from enjoying," &c. Nep. — Impedltus ne portaret, "Being 
hindered from carrying." Sale. Jug., 39. — Me impediet quo minus — vestrum 
jus defendant, " Shall hinder me from defending your right." Cic. 

4. In historical narration, after ut or quum (cum), " when," or 
other words denoting time, the imperfect subjunctive is trans- 
lated like the perfect indefinite or aorist ; or, when it expresses 
a continued action, like the perfect indicative : as, cum ab his 
queer eret, " when he inquired of these ;" cum id ultro polli- 
ceretur, " since of his own accord he promised that ;" cum 
summus mons ieneretur, "when the top of the "mountain was 
occupied." 

173. — III. The Perfect subjunctive is used to 
denote an act or event spoken of as already past, 
or which, will be past at some future time, but 
about which there is at present some contingency 
or uncertainty, in the mind of the speaker. 

This tense is commonly rendered by the signs may have; 
as, fortasse scripserim, " perhaps I may have written," imply- 
ing, "if so, I have at present forgotten it." 

This general idea is expressed with much variety in English, 
according as the tense stands connected with other words in 
the sentence. This will be best explained by a few examples. 

1. It is sometimes rendered like the present; as, ut sic 
dixerim, " that I may so speak." Sometimes like the imper 
feet; as, ubi ego uudiverim? "where should I have heard it?" 
fortasse erraverim, " perhaps I might be in an error." 

2. This tense sometimes inclines very much to a future- 



§ 45 THE VEKB. — TENSES. 99 

signification, and is rendered by should, would, could, can, will, 
shall; as, Citius credidcrim, "I should sooner believe." Juv. — 
Libenter audierim, "1 would gladly hear." Cic. — Ciceronem 
cuicunque eorum facile opposuerim, " I could easily match Cicero 
with any of them ;" — non facile dixerim, "I cannot well tell ;" 
— nee tdmen excluserim alios, " and yet I will not exclude 
others." — Si pendulum modo quid te fugerit, ego perierim, "If 
any tiling however trifling escape you, I shall be undone." 
Ter. 

3. After quasi, tanquam, and the like, it is sometimes 
rendered by had; as, quasi affuerim, " as if I had been present ;" 
perinde ac si jam vicerint, "just as if they had already con- 
quered." 

4. It is sometimes used in concessions ; as, paria sit pecunia, 
" suppose the money were gotten." Sometimes as the im- 
perative, with the idea of urgency ; as, hcec dicta, sint patribus, 
" let these things be told quickly to the fathers." 

174. — IV. The Plupeefect subjunctive denotes 
an action or event contingent at some past time, 
but regarded as to be perfected before another 
action or time subsequent to it, and connected 
with it ; as, 

Quodcunque jussisset me facturum esse dixi, " I said (then) 
that I would do whatever he should order." Here his order- 
ing was contingent at the time referred to, (then) ; but it was 
to take place before the doing connected with it. So, Id re- 
sponderunt se facturos esse, cum ille venio Aquilone Lemnum 
venisset, " They replied that they would do that, when he should 
return to Lemnos with a north wind." In such constructions, 
the leading verb is usually in the past tense, or in the present 
used for the past. It is variously rendered by would, could, 
might, had, might have, could have, would have, should have, or 
ought to have; as, si jussisset paruissem, " if he had commanded, 
I would have obeyed." Hence, observe : 

1. That though the action or state is often future in respect 
to the time of the leading verb, yet it is past with regard to 
the action or state dependent on it. 

2. After quum, it is used in the sense of the pluperfect, to 
express an action antecedent to another past action connected 
with it ; as, Ccesar quum hcec dixisset, profectus est, ci wheu 



100 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 47 

Csesar had said these things, he departed." Thus used, fuum^ 
with the pluperfect, may be elegantly rendered by the perfect 
participle in English; thus the above example may be rendered. 
" Caesar, having said these things, departed." 



§ 46. TENSES OF THE IMPERATIVE.. 

175. — The Imperative mood, in Latin, has only one tense, 
namely, the present. Still the act from the nature of this 
mood is necessarily future ; as, scribe, " write thou." The 
command is present ; the act commanded, future. Still the 
two forms of the second person mark a distinction of time. 
See 151, Obs. 10. 

The other tenses used imperatively, are the future and 
future-perfect indicative, and the present and perfect subjunc- 
tive ;' which see. 



§ 47. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 

IT 6. — The tenses of the Infinitive are four, 
the Present, the Perfect, and the Future, and, in 
the active voice, the Future-perfect. 

In Latin, the tenses of the infinitive express its action as 
past, present, or future, not with regard to the present time, 
as in the other moods, but with regard to the time of the lead- 
ing verb, on which it is dependent. 

177. — The infinitive is used in two different ways; viz : 
without a subject, or with it. 

178. — I. The infinitive without a subject, follows a verb, or 
adjective, and is always translated in the same way, whether 
the preceding verb be present, past, or future ; thus : 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
Present. 
DicifMr scribere, He is said to write, or to be writing (now). 
" scripsisse, " to have written (now). 

" scripturus esse, " to be about to write (now). 
" script tlr us fuissc, " to have been about to write (before now) 



§ 47 THE VERB. — TENSES. 101 

Past. 
Dicebdtur scrlbere, He was said to write, or to be writing (then;. 

H scripsisse, " to have written, <fcc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

PRESENT. 

Domus dicitur cedificari, The house is said to be building (now). 
" cedificata esse, " to be built (now). 

" cedificata fuisse, " to have been built (before now) 

" cedlficatum Iri. " to be about to be built (now). 

Past. 

Uomus dicebdtur ceutfcdri, The house was saiO to be building (then), <fcc. 

Note, — When the participle in wig, of the English verb, has not a passive 
sense, the present infinitive passive must be translated differently ; as, 
amdrij "to be loved." 

179. — II. The infinitive, with a subject, is usually translated 
by a distinct proposition, dependent on the preceding verb ; 
and the translation of the same tense of the infinitive must 
differ according to the tense of the verb on which it depends, 
as follows : 

1. The Present Infinitive represents the action, or state, 
expressed by the verb,- as present and going on at the time of 
the leading verb, and, consequently, must be rendered into 
English, in the time of the leading verb ; as, dlcit se scribere, 
"he says that he is writing;" — Pass., domum cedificdri, "that 
the house is building ;" — dixit se scribere, " he said that he was 
writing;" — Pass., domum cedificari, "that the house was build- 
ing." As an exception, see No. 5 below. 

2. The Perfect Infinitive represents the action, or state, 
expressed by the verb, as past at the time of the leading verb, 
and must be rendered accordingly ; i. e., after the present, by 
the English present-perfect, or past ; as, dlcit se scripsisse, " he 
says that he has written," or, " that he wrote;" — Pass., domum 
wdificdtam esse, "that the house is built; — cedificdtam fuisse, 
"has been built:" — After a past tense (or the present used for 
the past, 143-3), by the English pluperfect; as, dixit se 
scripsisse, "he said that he had written." — Pass., by the im- 
perfect, or pluperfect ; as, domum wdificdtam esse, " that the 
house was built;" cedificdtam fuisse, " had been built." 

3. The Future Infinitive represents the action, or state, 
expressed by the verb as future at the time of the leading 



102 THE VEEB. — TENSES. . § 47 

verb, and must be rendered accordingly ; as, dlcit se scripturum 
esse, " he says that he will write ;" — Pass., domum cedificdtum 
Iri, u that the house will be built ;" — dixit se scripturum esse, 
"he said that he would write ;" — Pass., domum cedificatum Iri, 
" that the house would be built." For all these, see 180. 

4. The future infinitive active is compound, being made up 
of esse, or fuisse, and the participle in rus, agreeing in gender, 
number, and case, with the accusative before it, or with the 
nominative of the leading verb. With esse, it corresponds to 
the future indicative; with fuisse, to the future-perfect; as, 

Dlcit eos scripturos esse, He says that they will write. 

Dixit se scripturum esse, He said that he would write. 

Dlcit se scripturum fuisse, He says that he would have written. 

Dixit earn scriptur am fuisse, He said that she would have written, 

Dicltur scripturus esse, He is said to be about to write. 

Note 1. — Esse and fuisse, in the future infinitive, are generally understood; 
thus, dixit se scripturum ; and so of others. 

5. When the leading verb is in the future tense, the infini- 
tive mood will be properly translated in its own tense, not in 
that of the leading verb ; as, dlcet se scribere, " he will say that 
he is writing ," dlcet se scripsisse, " he will say that he has 
written ;" dlcet se scripturum esse, " he will say that he will 
write;" se scripturum fuisse, " that he would have written." So 
also in the passive voice. 

6. The perfect infinitive passive is made up of esse or fuisse r 
and the perfect participle in us, agreeing in gender, number 
and case with the accusative before it, or with the nominative 
of the leading verb, when that is in the passive voice ; as, dlcit 
litems scriptas esse, " he says that letters were written ;" literce 
dicuntur scriptce esse, " letters are said to have been writ- 
ten," &c. Esse and fuisse are sometimes understood. See 
Note 1 above. 

7. The future infinitive passive is also a compound tense, 
consisting of the former supine, and Iri, the present infinitive 
passive of eo; as, scriptum Iri, "to be about to be written." 

8. The future infinitive of deponent verbs (207) is made 
with esse or fuisse, and the participle in rus, as in the active 
voice (No. 4 above), and not like the future infinitive passive. 

9. When the verb in the active voice has no supine, and 
consequently no participle in rus, there can, of course, be no 
future infinitive. In this case, the want of it is supplied by 



§ 47 THE VERB. — TENSES. 103 

the future infinitive of sum; viz. futurum esse, or fore fol- 
lowed by ut, and the subjunctive in the present or imperfect, 
as the leading verb may require. Thus, dixit fore ut lugcret, 
" he said that he would mourn ;" elicit fore ut lugeat, " he says 
that he will mourn." 678. 

Note 2. — This form of expression is often used in both the active and 
the passive voice, even when the verb has the regular form of the future 
infinitive. 

10. Fore, the infinitive of sum, is used with all participles 
in us; as, Commissum cum equitatu proeliofore videbaL CLes. — 
Deinde addis, te fore ventarum. Cic. — Mittendos fore legates. 
Liv. 

11. The infinitive mood with a subject, i. e. with an accusa- 
tive before it, is usually rendered as the indicative, the par- 
ticle that being commonly placed before it. The following 
examples will illustrate the method of translating the different 
tenses of the infinitive, when preceded by the leading verb in 
present, past, or future time. 

180.— INFINITIVE ACTIVE. 

i Dlcit me scribere, He says'that I write, or am writing. 

2 Dixit me scribere, He said that I wrote, or was writing. 

3 Dlcet me scribere, He will say that I am writing. 

4 Dlcit me scripsisse, He says that I wrote, or did write. 

5 Dixit me scripsisse, He said that I had written. 

6 Dlcet me scripsisse, He will say that I have written, or did write 

*7 Dlcit me scripturwn esse, He says that I will write. 

8 Dixit me scripturwn esse } He said that I would write. 

9 Dlcet me scripturwn esse, He will say that I will write. 

1 Dlcit me scripturumfuisse, He says that I would have written. 

11 Dixit me scripturumfuisse, He said that I would have written. 

12 Dlcet me scripturumfuisse, He will say that I would have written. 

INFINITIVE PASSIVE. 

18 Dlcit liter as scrlbi, He says that letters are written, or writing. 

14 Dixit Uteras scrlbi, He said that letters were written, or writing. 

1 5 Dlcet Uteras scrlbi, He will say that letters are written, or w riting. 

16 Dlcit Uteras scriptas esse, He says that letters are, or were written. 

11 Dixit Uteras scriptas esse, He said that letters were, or had been written. 
18 Dlcet Uteras scriptas esse, He will say that letters are, or were writtea 



104 THE VERB. — TENSES. § 48 

19 Dicit literas scriptas fuisse, He says that letters have >een written. 

20 Dixit literas scriptas fuisse, He said that letters had been written 

21 Dlcet literas scriptas fuisse, He will say that letters have been written. 

22 Dlcit literas scriptum Iri, He says that letters will be written. 

23 Dixit literas scriptw.t Iri, He said that letters would be written. 

24 Dlcet literas scriptum Iri, He will say that letters would be written. 

Note 3. — When the preceding verb is of the imperfect, or pluperfect tense, 
the English of the infinitive is the same as when it is of the perfect indefinite, 
i. e. is the same as the infinitive after dixit, in the preceding table. 

Note 4. — As the perfect definite (162) connects the action completed with 
the present time, the infinitive after it, in this sense, will generally be 
translated as it is after the present ; as, dixit me scribere, — scripsisse, — scriptu- 
rum esse, u Jie has said that I am writing, — was writing, — will write," i. e. as 
it is in Examples Nos. 1, 4, and 7. With dixit used indefinitely, the infini- 
tive would be rendered as in Examples Nos. 2, 5, and 8. 

Note 5. — Because memory always refers to something past, the infinitive 
present after rnemini ) u \ remember," is translated by the past tense; as, 
memlnime dicer e, "I remember that I said," (not "that 1 say"). Memini 
me dixisse is also a proper formula to express the same thing. 

Exc. 1. When the present infinitive expresses that which is always true, 
it must be translated in the present, after any tense (157—1) ; as, doctus 
erat Deum gubemare mundum, " he had been taught that God governs 
the world." 

Exc. 2. When the present infinitive expresses an act subsequent to the 
time of the governing verb, it is translated, after any tense, by the poten- 
tial, with should, woidd; as, necesse est (fuit, fuerat) te Ire, "it is (was, 
had been) necessary that you should go." 



181.— § 48. NUMBER AND PERSON. 

1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the singular, 
and the plural, corresponding to the singular, and the plural 
of nouns and pronouns. 

2. In each number, the verb has three persons, called first, 
second, and third. The first asserts of the person speaking ; 
the second, of the person spoken to ; and the third, of the per- 
son or thing spoken of. In the Imperative, there are only- 
two persons, the second, and the third. 

TABLE OF PERSONAL ENDINGS. 

The following table shows the personal endings, both sin- 
gular and plural, of all regular verbs, in all con luxations xn 



§ 48 THE VEKB. — TENSES. 105 

all the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, except 
the perfect indicative active, and the compound tenses in the 
passive voice : 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 



Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1 . r, mur, 

2. ris, or re, mini, 



1. — . m, • mus 

2. s, tis, 



3. t, nt. 



3. tur, • ntur. 



3. The subject or nominative of the verb in the first person 
singular, is always ego ; in the plural, nos; — in the second per- 
son singular, tu; in the plural, vos. These are seldom ex- 
pressed, being sufficient] y indicated by the termination of the 
verb ; as, scrlbo, " I write ;" scribimus, "we write ; M scrlbis, 
" thou writest;" scribitis, " you write." 

Obs. Verbs in the first person plural, or in the second per- 
son singular, are sometimes used instead of the third person 
with an indefinite subject; as, quam midta facimus causa ami- 
corum, '"how many things w^e do (i. e. men do) for the sake 
of friends!*' — cerneres, "you would see," i. e. "one, a person, 
or any person, would see." Sall. 

The subject of the verb in the third person, is any person 
or thing spoken of, whether it be expressed by a noun, pro- 
noun, infinitive, gerund, or clause of a sentence ; as, vir scrlbit, 
" the man writes ;" Mi legunt " they read ;" ludere jucundum 
est, "to play is pleasant;" incertum est quam longa vltafulura 
sit, " how long our life will be, is uncertain." 

4. Two or more nouns or pronouns together may be the 
subject of one verb. If these happen to be of different per- 
sons, the verb takes the first person, rather than the second or 
third, and the second rather than the third ; as, ego, et tu, et 
Me scribimus, " I, and thou, and he write." 

5. Pronouns, participles, or adjectives used substantively, 
or having nouns understood to them, are of the third person. 
Qui takes the person of the antecedent. Ipse may be joined 
to any person, according to the sense. 

6. To verbs also belong Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, 

5* 



106 THE VEKB. — PARTICIPLES. § 49 



182.— § 49. PARTICIPLES. 

1. Participles are parts of the verb which contain no 
affirmation, but express the meaning of the verb considered as 
a general quality or condition of an object ; as, dmans, " lov- 
ing ;" doctus, " learned." 

2. Participles belong partly to the verb, and partly to the 
adjective. From the former, they have signification, voice, 
and tense; from the latter, declension; those in ns are of the 
third declension, and declined like prudens (99-2) : all others 
are of the first and second, and declined like bonus (98-1). In 
construction, they have the government of the verb, and the 
concord, or agreement of the adjective (§ 98). 

3. When the idea of time is separated from the participle, 
it becomes a participial or verbal adjective, and is capable of 
comparison ; as, doctus, doctlor, doctlssimus, " learned, more 
learned, most learned." 

4. To the same class, also, belong participles whose mean- 
ing is reversed or modified by composition with words, or 
participles never combined with other parts of the same verb ; 
as, Innocens, Indoctus, Impransus, nefandus, &c. The perfect 
participle with the negative prefix in, frequently denotes a pas- 
sive impossibility, usually expressed in Latin by adjectives in 
ills or bills; as, invlctus miles, " an invincible soldier ;" Incor- 
ruptus clvis, " an incorruptible citizen." 

5. The time of the participle, like that of the infinitive, is 
estimated from the time of the leading verb ; i. e. the accom- 
panying action or state expressed by the participle is present, 
past, or future, at the time indicated by the leading verb, 
with which it is connected ; thus, vldl eum venientem, " I saw 
him coming ;" Numa, Gurtbus ndtus, rex credtus est, " Numa, 
born at Cures, was made king ;" elephantes amnem transituri 
minimos prcemittunt, " elephants, about to cross a river, send 
the smallest first." 

Note 1. — The perfect participle, both of deponent and common verbs, often 
expresses an action nearly, or entirely, contemporaneous with that of the 
leading verb. In such cases, it is better rendered, into English, by the pres- 
ent participle in ing, than by its ordinary rendering; as, Hoc f acinus rex 
miraius juvenem dimisit, "The king, admiring this act, dismissed the 
youth." Liv. — Arbitr atus id bellum celeriter confici posse, eo exercltum 
adduxit. (Ies, — Hac arte Pollux — enisus, arces attigit igneas. Hoe. — Columba 
jlxamque refert delay 8 a sagltiam. Vmo. — Pwribis send quemque seeuti, 
agrnlne vartitG, fulgent. So also the perfect participle of the active verb, see 
No. S,JVote ?, 



§ 49 THE VERB. — PARTICIPLES. 107 

6. The future passive participle in dus, sometimes expresses 
bare futurity ; as, his (scil. ventis) quoque habendum a'era 
permlsit, " to these also, he gave the region of the air to be 
possessed." But, in conjunction with the verb sum, and fre- 
quently also in other constructions, it denotes necessity, pro- 
priety, or obligation, and hence, by inference, futurity ; as, 
Delenda est Carthago, " Carthage must be destroyed.'' Facta 
narrabas dissimulanda tibi, " you were relating facts which you 
should have concealed." 

7. The participle in dus, of transitive verbs, is often used in 
the oblique cases, in the sense of the gerund. Thus used, it is 
called a Gerundive participle, and agrees with its substantive 
in gender and number, and both take the case which the 
gerund would have in the same place ; thus, tempus petendw 
pads, by the gerund, is petendi pacem, " time of seeking 
peace ;" rerum repetimdarum causa, " for the sake of demand- 
ing redress ;" by the gerund, repetundi res. 

JVote 2. — Gerunds and gerundives of the third and fourth conjugations, 
often have undus, <fcc, instead of endus, as in the preceding examples. 

8. The Latin language has no perfect participle in the ac 
tive voice, nor present participle in the passive. The want of 
the former is made up in two ways : First, by the perfect 
participle passive, in the case absolute ; as, Ccesar, I/is clictis, 
profectus est, " Ceesar (these things being said, i. e.), having 
said these things, departed ;" and Secondly, by quum, w T ith the 
pluperfect subjunctive ; as, Caesar, quum hcec dixisset, profectus 
est, " Caesar (w^hen he had said, i. e.), having said these things, 
departed." 

Note 3. — The want of the present participle passive, is made up either by 
the perfect participle, or by the future participle in d/us, both of wnich appeal 
to be sometimes used in a present sense ; as, JSotus evolatpiced tectus caliglne, 
" Notus flies forth (being) covered with pitchy darkness." Ovid. — Volvenda 
dies en attulit vitro, " Lo ! revolving time (lit. time being rolled on) hath of 
itself brought about." Vine — Or by the gerundive form of expression, as in 
No. 7 ; see also I\o. 5, Note 1. 

9 Transitive verbs have four participles, of which the pres- 
ent in ns, and the future in rus, belong to the active voice ; 
the perfect in tus, sus, or xus, and the future in dus, to the 
passive. 

10. Intransitive verbs have two participles, namely, the 
present in ns, and the future in rus; frequently also the future 
passive in dus, and also the perfect passive. 



* 



108 THE VERB. — GERUNDS AND SUPINES. § 50 

11. Neuter passive verbs have commonly three participles; 
namely, the present, perfect, and future in mis. 213. 

12. Deponent verbs of a transitive signification, have, 
generally four participles ; those of an intransitive significa- 
tion commonly want the future in dus, except that the neuter 
in dum is sometimes used impersonally. 

13. Common verbs have generally four participles, of which 
the perfect only is used both in an active and passive sense ; 
as, adeptus victoriam, " having obtained the victory ;" victoria 
adeptd, " the victory being obtained." The rest are active. 

207, Obs. 2. 

14. Some intransitive verbs, though they have no passive, 
yet have participles of the perfect passive form, but still with 
an intransitive signification ; such are, coendtus, " having sup- 
ped ;" prcmsus, "having dined ;" juratus, "having sworn." 



183.— § 50. GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 

1. The Gerund is a kind of verbal noun, used only in the 
singular number. It represents the action or state expressed 
by the verb as a thing now going on, and at the same time, if 
in the nominative, or in the accusative before the infinitive, as 
the subject of discourse ; and if in the oblique cases, as the 
object of some action or relation. They are construed in all 
respects as nouns, and also govern the case of their verbs. 
§147. 

In meaning and use, the gerund resembles the English pres- 
ent participle, used as a noun (see Eng. Gr», 195; An.- and 
Pr. Eng. Gr., 462), and the Greek infinitive with the article 
prefixed. See Gr. Gr., § 173. 

2. Supines are defective verbal nouns of the fourth declen 
sion, having only the accusative and the ablative singular. 

The supine in um has an active signification, and governs 
the case of the verb. 682. 

The supine in u has usually a passive signification, and 
governs no case. 



51 THE V r EEB. — CONJUGATION. 109 



184.— § 51. CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

1. Regular Verbs are those in which the secondary parts 
are formed from the primary, according to certain rules, 185. 

2. The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several voices, moods, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. 

3. Of regular verbs, in Latin, there are four conjugations, 
called the First, Second, Third, and Fourth. These are dis- 
tinguished from each other, by the vowel before re, in the 
present infinitive active ; thus, 

The First Conjugation has a long before re of the infinitive. 

The Second " has e long before re of the infinitive. 

The Third " has e short before re of the infinitive. 

The Fourth " has I long before re of the infinitive. 

Fxc. Dare, and its compounds of the first conjugation, have 
a short. 

4. The primary tenses, or parts of the verb in the active 
voice, from which all the other parts are formed, are four ; 
namely, o of the present indicative, re of the present infinitive, 
i of the perfect indicative, and um of the supine. The giving 
of these parts, in the order just mentioned, is called conjugat- 
ing the verb; thus, 







Pres. Lid. 


Pres. Inf. 


Perf. hid. 


1st. Supine. 


1st 


Conj. 


Amo, 


amare, 


amavi, 


amatum. 


2d 


it 


Moneo, 


monere, 


monui, 


monitum. 


3d 


a 


Rego, 


regere, 


rexi, 


rectum. 


4th 


c< 


Audio, 


audlre, 


audivi, 


auditum. 



The manner of conjugating each verb being accurately as- 
certained from the Dictionary, the other tenses may be formed 
with certainty by the rules laid down in the next section.* 

* Though general rules may be, and have been, laid down, to form the 
primary tenses from the general root, or stem of the verb, yet there is such 
a multitude of exceptions in the third conjugation, (and some in the others 
also,) which it is impossible to bring under any rule, that it will be found in- 
dispensable, after all, to learn the conjugation of each verb from the diction- 
ary, or from the table of irregular conjugations (§ 81). For this reason, they 
are here omitted in the text as useless for any practical purpose. The prin- 
cipal methods proposed are in substance the two following : 



110 THE VERB.— FOE MATION OF TENSES. § 52 

185.— § 52. FOEMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

I. Indicative Mood. 

1. The Present is a primary tense. 

2. The Imperfect is formed from the present by changing : 

In the 1st Conjugation, o into abam; as, am-o, am-abam, 
" 2d " eo into ebam; as, mon-eo, mon-ebam, 

« 3d and 4th " o into ebam; as, i r %°> WfT> 

9 ' ( audi-o, audi-ebam, 

3. The Perfect is a primary tense. 

4. The Pluperfect, in all conjugations, is formed from the 

First. The general root or stein that runs through the whole verb, consists 
of the letters preceding the infinitive terminations, -are, -ere, -ere, -ire. 

To form the primary tenses, there is added to the general root as follows : 





Pr.. Ind. 


Pr. Inf. 


Per/. Ind. 


1st. Supine, 


In the 1st Conj. 


-°, 


-are, 


-avi, 


-atum. 


" 2d " 


-eo, 


-ere, 


-ui, 


-itum. 


" 3d " 


-o, & -io, 


-ere, 


-i, & -si, 


-turn, <& -sum. 


" 4th " 


-io, 


-ire, 


-Ivi, 


-Itum. 



In the perfect tense of the third conjugation, observe : 

1. If the root of the verb ends with a vowel, the termination added is i; 
as, acuo, root acu, perfect acui. 

2. If the root of the verb ends with a consonant, the usual termination is 
si, which, in uniting with the root, causes the following changes, viz : 

1st. If the letter preceding si be c, g, 7i, or an, it unites with the s, and forms 
x: as, duco (due-si), duxi ; Jingo (fing-si), finxi ; traJio (trah-si), traxi; 
coquo (coqu-si), coxi. 

2d. The letter o before si is changed into p ; as, scrilo, scripsi. 

3d. When d precedes si, either the d or the s is rejected ; as, dsfendo, defendi , 
claudo, clausi. 

4th. The s is dropped in many verbs which cannot be brought under any de- 
finite rule ; as, lego, legi; emo, emi. 

In the supine of the third conjugation, observe : 

1. When the root of the verb ends in a vowel, the supine adds turn, and 
lengthens the vowel preceding it ; as, acuo, acutum. 

2. When the root ends with a consonant, the supine adds turn, sometimes 
sum. In uniting with the root, the following changes for the sake of euphony 
take place, viz : 

1st. The letter b before turn is changed into p; as, scribo, scriptum. 

2d. The letters g, h, and qu, before turn,, are changed into c; as, rego, rectum ; 
traho, tr actum; coquo, coctum. 



§ 52 THE VERB. — FORMATION OF TENSES. 11J 

perfect, by changing i into eram; as, amdv-i, amav-eram; mo- 
nu-i, moau-erahi, <kc. 

5. The Future is formed from the present by changing — 

In the 1st Conjugation, o into abo ; as, &m-o y am-abo. 
u 2d " eo into ebo; as, mon-eo, mon-ebo. 

" 3d and 4th " o into am; as,-! %.' %. 

' ' ( auai-o, audi-am. 

6. The Future-perfect, in all conjugations, is formed from 
the perfect, by changing i into ero; as, amdv-i, amav-ero\ mo- 

nu-i, monu-ero, &c. 

II. ^Z7^ Subjunctive Mood. 

7. The Present Subjunctive is formed from the present in- 

8d. The letter g before sum, when a vowel precedes, unites with the *, and 
forms x ; i\$,figo (Jig-sum), Jixum ; when r precedes, the g is rejected; 
as, tergo, tersum. 

4th. The letter d before sum is rejected ; as, defendo,defensum. 

Secondly. The general root being found as before ; then, to form the second 
root, in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, (i. e. the root of the perfect 
tense,) add av for the first, u-foY the second, and w for the fourth; as, dm, 
amav / mon, monu / aud, audw. 

To form the third root, (i. e. the root of the supine,) in the same conjuga- 
tions, add to the general root the syllables dtu, Uu, and itu ; as, am, amdtu ; 
mon, monltu :/ aud, auditu. 

The three roots being thus found, the primary tenses are formed as fol- 
lows, viz : 

1. From the first root, the present indicative is formed, 

In the 1st Conjugation, by adding -0, as, am, am-o. 

"2d " u -eo, as, mon, mo?i-eo. 

"3d " " -0, or -io, as, reg, reg-o. 

" 4th " " -io, as, aud, aud-io. 

2. From the same root, the present infinitive is formed, 

In the 1st Conjugation, by adding -are, as, am, am- are. 

"2d " " -'ere, as, mon, mon-lre. 

" 3d " " -ere, as, reg, reg-ere. 

" 4th " " -ire, as, aud, aud-ire. 

3. From the second root, in all conjugations, the perfect is formed by add- 
ing i ; as, amdv-i, monu-i, audlv-i. 

4. From the third root in all conjugations, the first supine is formed by 
adding ?n; as, amdtu-m, monltu-m, &c. 

The third conjugation is so irregular in the formation of its roots, that no 
rules are attempted. 

The first of these methods is substantially that offered in the Grammar of 
Zumpt. The second is the plan of Andrews and Stoddard, which they carry 
out by applying it to all the tenses, secondary as well as primary. 



112 THE VERB. — FORMATION OF TENSES. § 52 

dicative, — in the first conjugation, by changing o into em; as, 
dm-o, dm-em; — in the second, third, and fourth, by changing o 
into dm; as, mone-o, mone-am; reg-o, reg-am; audi-o, audi-am. 

8. The Imperfect Subjunctive, in all conjugations, is formed 
from the present infinitive, by adding m; as, amdre, amdrem; 
monere, monerem; r eg ere, regerem, &c. 

9. The Perfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect indic- 
ative, by changing i into erim; as, amdv-i, amav-erim; monu-i, 
monu-erim, &c. 

10. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is formed from the perfect 
indicative by changing i into issem; as, amdv-i, amav-issem; 
monu-i, monu-issem, &c. 

III. The Imperative Mood. 

11. The Present Imperative is formed from the present in- 
finitive, by taking away re ; as, amdre, amd; monere, mone; 
r eg ere, rege; audire, audi. 

IV. Tlie Infinitive Mood. 

12. The Present Infinitive is a primary tense. 

13. The Perfect Infinitive is formed from the perfect indic- 
ative, by changing i into isse ; as, amdv-i, amdv-isse; monu-i, 
monu-isse, &c. 

14. The Future Infinitive is a compound tense, made up of 
esse or fuisse, and the future participle in mis; as, esse ovfuisse 
amaturus, -a, -urn; esse or fuisse monilurus, -a, -um, &c. 

V. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines. 

15. The Present Participle is formed from the present in 
dicative by changing, 

o, in the 1st Conjugation, into an s; as, dm-o, dm-ans. 
eo, " 2d " into ens; as, mon-eo, mon-ens. 

O, « 3d and 4th « into ens; as, -I ***• #£"* 

■( auai-o, audi-ens. 

16. The Future Participle is formed from the former supine 
by changing um into wrws; as, amdt-um, amat-urus ; moiut-um, 
moniUurus, &c. 



§ 53 THE VERB. — FORMATION OF TENSES. 113 

17. The Gerund is formed from the present indicative by 
changing, 

o, in the 1st Conjugation, into andum; as, drn-o, am-andum. 
eo, " 2d " into endum; as, mon-eo, mon-endum, 

o, " 3d and 4th " into endum; as, \ 7 e ^' J .' > 7 ^' 7 . n u ? l% 

' ' / audi-o, audi-endum. 

18. The Forme)- Supine is a primary part of the verb. 

19. The Latter Supine is formed from the former by drop- 
ping m; as, amatum, amdtu; monitum, monitu. 



186.— § 53. FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE 
PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. In the Indicative mood, the present passive is formed 
from the present active by adding r; as, amo, timor; moneo, 
moneor, &c. ; — the imperfect and the future passive, from the 
same tenses in the active voice, by changing m into r; as, 
amdbam, amdbar; — or adding r to bo; as, monebo, monebor, &c. 

2. In the Subjunctive mood, the present and the imperfect 
passive are formed from the same tenses in the active voice, 
by changing m into r; as, dmem, aimer; moneam, monear, &c. 

3. The perfect, pluperfect, and future-perfect indicative, and 
the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive, are compound tenses, 
made up of the perfect participle passive, and the verb sum 
as an auxiliary, as exhibited in the paradigm of these tenses. 

4. The Imperative passive, in all verbs, is formed by adding 
re to the imperative active ; as, ama, amdre ; mbne, monere, &c. 
Hence, the imperative passive is like the present infinitive 
active. 

5. The Present Infinitive passive is formed from the present 
infinitive active, by changing re in the first, second, and fourth 
conjugations, into ri ; as, amct-re, amd-ri ; mone-re, mone-ri ; 
audi-re, audl-ri ; and by changing ere in the third conjugation 
into i ; as, reg-ere, reg-i. But arcesso has arcessiri. 

The Perfect Infinitive is a compound tense, made up of the 
perfect participle, and esse ovfuisse prefixed; as, esse or fuisse 
amdtus, a, um, &c. 



114 THE VERB. — SUM. § 54 

The Future Infinitive is also a compound tense, made up 
of the former supine and Iri, the present infinitive passive of 
eo ; as, amatum Iri, monitum Iri, &c. 

6. The Perfect Participle is formed from the former supine, 
by changing um into us; as, amdt-um, amdt-us; monit-um, 

mo nit-us, &c. 

The Future Participle is formed as the active gerund (185-17), 
oy putting dies instead of climi; as, gerund, amandum, participle, 
amandus ; gerund, monendum, participle, monendus, &c. 



187.— § 54. THE IRREGULAR VERB SUM * 

The irregular verb sum is sometimes called a substantive 
verb, as it denotes being, or simple existence ; as, su?n, " I 
am," " I exist." Sometimes it is called auxiliary, because it 
is used as an auxiliary verb in the inflection of the passive 
voice. It is conjugated thus : 



"sing. 

Plur. 





Pres. Ind. 
Sum, 


Pres. Inf. Perf Ind. 
esse, fui. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present 


Tense, am. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

1. 

2, 
3. 


Ego Sum,f 
Tu Es, 
File Est, 

Nos Siimus 

Vos Estis, 
Illi Sunt, 


t 


I am, 

Thou\ art, or you are, 

He is; 

We are, 

Ye, or you are, 

They are. 



* This verb being irregular, properly belongs to § 83, but is inserted here, 
because, as an auxiliary, it is much used in the inflection of regular verbs. 

t In the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative moods, eoery part of the 
verb must have its nominative expressed or understood. See 181-8. The 
nominatives ego, tu, Me, of the singular, and nos, vos, illi, of the plural, are 
here prefixed in the present tense, to show their place and their use ; but in 
the following tenses, and in the following conjugations, they are omitted. 
Still they are to be regarded as understood, and may be supplied at pleasure. 

X See 118, NbU2. In the plural, " you " is much more common than " ye," 
which is now seldom used. 



§ 54 THE VERB. — SUM. 115 

Imperfect, was. 

Sing. 1. Eram, I was, 

2. Eras, Thou wast, or you were, 

3. Erat, He was; 

Plur. 1. Eramus We were, 

2. Eratis, Ye, or you were, 

3. Erant, They. were. 

Perfect Definite, have been; Indefinite, was. 

Sing. 1. Fui, I have been, 

2. Fuisti, Thou, hast been, 

3. Fuit. He has been; 

Plur. 1. Fuimus, We have been, 

2. Fuisti s, Ye have been, 

3. Fuerunt, or mere, They have been. 

Pluperfect, had been. 

$ing. 1. Fueram, I had been, 

2. Fueras, Thou hadst been, 

3. Fuerat, He had been; 

Plur. 1. Fueram us, We had been, 

2. Fu eratis, Ye had been, 

3. Fuerant, They had been. 

Future, shall, or will. 

Sing. 1. Ero, / shall, or will be, 

2. Eris, Thou shalt, or wilt be, 

3. Erit, He shall, or will be; 

Plur. 1. Erimus, We shall, or w«7/ &£, 

2. Eritis, Fe $/ia/Z, or will be, 

3. Erunt, 27i^/ shall, or wi7£ £e. 

Future-Perfect, shall, or w7Z Aave fom. 

Sing. 1. Fuero, I shall, or mZZ &ave $££7i, 

2. Fueris, Thou shalt, or u'i/^ Aavc been, 

3. Fuerit, -ffe s/ici^, or will have been; 

Plur. 1. Fuerimus, We shall, or will have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye shall, or sri/£ #atte been, 

3. Fuerint, jP/zey sAa#, o will have been. 



116 THE VERB.— SUM. § 54 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can. 

Sing-. 1. Sim, I may ', or can be, 

2. Sis, Thou may st, or canst be 

3. Sit, He may, or can be; 

Plur. 1. Simus, We may, or can be, 

2. Sitis, Ye may, or ca>i &e, 

3. Sint, They may, or can be. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should. 

Sing. 1. Essem, I might, &c, 60, 

2. Esses, Thou mightst, &c, oe, 

3. Esset, Zfe might, &c, oe; 

PZwr. 1. Essemns, We might, &zq,., be, 

2. Essetis, Pe might, &c., 6e, 

3. Essent, 57^?/ might, &c, oe. 

Perfect, way Aave. 

$m#. 1. Fuerim, I may have been, 

2. Fueris, TAow mayst have been, 

3. Fuerit, .He ???c?y /icwe 6em; 

PZwr. 1. Fuermius, We may have been, 

2. Fueritis, Ye may have been, 

3. Fuerint, They may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should havi 

Sing. 1. Fuissem, I might, &a, /*aw been, 

2. Fuisses, jTAow mightst, &a, Aai>e 6em 

3. Fuisset, i/e might, &c., Aave fovw; 

P/wr. 1. Fuissemus, IFe might, &c, Aewe oem, 

2. Fuissetis, J 7 ^ might, &c, Aave omi, 

3. Fuissent, They might, &c, /iave fotfw. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

$>>z<7. 2. Es, or Esto. ite fAcw, 

3. Esto, Ze£ fo'm fo; 

Plur. 2. Este, or estote, Be ye, 

3. Sunto, Zctf them be. 



§ 55 



THE VERB. — SUM. 



117 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Esse, To he (177) 

Fuisse, To have been. 

Esse futurus, a, urn, To be about to be. 



Pres. 

Perf. 

Put. 

F, Perf. Fuisse futurus, a, um, To have been about to be. 



PARTICIPLE. 
Future. Futurus, a, urn, About to be. 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 

Infinitive. 



fuisse, 

esse futurus, 
fuisse futurus. 





Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Imperative. 


Pres. 


sum, 


sim, 


es, or esto. 


Imp. 
Pei" f. 
Pli\«\ 


eram, 

fui, 

fueram, 


essem, 
fuSrim 
fuissem. 




Fut. 
F.-Perf. 


ero, 

fuero. 







Participle 



futurus. 



Obs. 



1. The compounds of sum; namely, adsum, absum, 
desum, insum, inter sum, obsum, prcesum, subsum, super sum, are 
conjugated like the simple verb ; but insum, and subsum, want 
the perfect, and the tenses formed from it. Prosum, and 
possum from potis and sum, are very irregular. 221-1, 2. 

Obs. 2. Instead of Essem, for em is sometimes used, and also 
fore, instead of fuisse. 

Obs. 3. The participle ens is not in use, but appears in two 
compounds, absens, and pr&sens. Also, the supine and gerund 
are wanting, but the inflection in the persons and numbers is 
regular. 

Note. — The great irregularity of this verb arises from the different parts 
being formed from different themes or roots, viz : the parts beginning with e 
from eo, the root of the Greek eijii, and those beginning with/' from fuo, the 
same as the Greek 6vw. In ancient times, this verb was conjugated//^, 
fuere, fui (fuvi ), fiitum. Fuere was contracted fore, and fuerem, for em ; 
and from futum, was formed futurus. Hence, also, the ancient forms 
fuverim, fuvero, &c. 



188.— § 55. EXERCISES ON THE VERB SUM. 

1. Give the designation of the verb. — conjugate it ; — give the tense, mood 
person, number, and translation of the following icords, always observing 
the same order; thus, — Sum, verb intransitive, irregular, found in the 



118 THE VERB. — SUM. § 55 

present indicative, active, first person singular, "I am f — Fuit, verb in- 
transitive, irregular, found in the perfect indicative, active, third person 
singular : definite, " he has been f indefinite, " he was."* 

Est, erat, erit, fueram, fuerim, fuero, sit, esset, fuisti, fui- 
mus, fuerunt, fuere, erunt, shit, siimus, erant, essent, firissent, 
esse, esto, sunto, fuisse, es, eras, fueras, fuistis, futurus esse, 
futurus, sint, &c, ad libitum, 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, naming the part of 
the verb used; thus, — "I will be," ero, in -the future indicative, active, first 
person singular. The Latin word for /, thou, he, we, you, they, to be omitted 
or inserted at pleasure.! 

We are, they were, you have been, thou hast been, they 
will be, he may be, I shall have been, to be, be thou, let them 
be, about to be, to be about to be, we should be, we should 
have been, I may have been, they will have been, they may 
have been, they have been, you were, thou wast, he is, they 
are, &c, ad libitum, 

3. The verb sum forms the copula connecting the subject and the pre- 
dicate in a simple proposition, the predicate of which is not a verb. Thus 
in the proposition: "Man is mortal," man is the subject* mortal, the pre- 
dicate ; and is, the copula. With the verb sum as a copula in different 
tenses, and the exercises § 23-1, form simple sentences ; thus, cdsa est {erat, 
fuit, &q.) parva, "the cottage is, (was, has been, (fee.) small;" plural, casce 
sunt parvce, " the cottages are small." 

In this way, translate into English the following propositions (see p. 56) 

Poeta erat elarus, — opus magnum erit, — nubes densae sunt, 
— aestas callida fuit, — urbs antiqua fait, — &c. 

Translate the following English sentences into Latin : 

Life is short, — the day was clear, — the boys are docile, — 
the shepherd will be faithful, — the apples are sweet, — &c. 

* Tn these and all following exercises on the verb, it will be of great im 
portanee, in order to form habits of accuracy, and as a preparation for futun 
exercises in translating and parsing, to require the pupil, in this manner, t( 
state every thing belonging to a verb, in the order here indicated, or in anj 
other the teacher may direct, always, however, observing the same ; and 
also, for the saving of time and unnecessary labor, to state them in the fewest 
words possible, and without waiting to have every word drawn from him by 
questions. Let it be observed, also, that the term active here has no reference 
to the class of the verb, but only to its form, being that of the active voice. 136-2. 

f N. B. It will be a profitable exercise to require each pupil to write out 
the Latin for these and other English words that may be dictated, — carefully 
to mark the quantity of long and short vowels, and to pronounce them cor- 
written. 



§ 56 THE VEKB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 119 

189.— § 56. FIRST CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Supine. 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To love. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, love, do love, am loving. 157. 

Sing. 1 . Am-o, / love, do love, am loving, 

2. Am-as, . Thou lovest, dost love,- art loving, 

3. Am-at, He loves, does love, is loving; 

Plur. 1. Am-amus, We love, do love, are loving, 

2. Am-atis, Ye, or you love, do love, are loving . 

3. Am-ant, They love, do love, are loving 

Imperfect, loved, did love, ivas loving. 159, 

Sing. 1. Am-abam, I loved, did love, was loving, 

2. Am-abas, Thou lovedst, didst love, toast loving 

3. Am-abat, He loved, did love, was loving; 

Plur. 1 . Am-abamus, We loved, did love, were loving, 

2. Am-abatis, Ye loved, did love, toere loving, 

3. Am-abant, They loved, did love, ivere loving. 

Perfect Def., have loved ; Indef., loved, did love. 161. 

Sing. 1. Am-avi, I have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Am-avisti, Thou hast loved, lovedst, didst love. t 

3. Am-avit, He has loved, loved, did love; 

Plur. 1. Am-amus, We have loved, loved, did love, 

2. Arn-avistis, Ye have loved, loved, did love, 

3. Am-averunt, or ) rri z. ? 77 j tj 1 

5 \ J hey nave loved, loved, did love. 
-avere, S 

Pluperfect, had loved. 165. 

Sing. 1. Am-averam, I had loved, 

2. Am-averas, Thou hadst loved, 

3. Am-avcrat, He had lovcc ; 

Plur. 1. Am-averamus, We had loved, 

2. Am-averatis, Ye had loved, 

3. Am-averant, They had loved. 



120 THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. § 66 

Future, shall, or will love. 167. 

Sing. 1. Am-abo, I shall, or will love, 

2. Am-abis, Thou shall, or wilt love, 

3. Am-abit, He shall, or will love; 

Plur. 1. Am-abimus, We shall, or will love, 

2. Am-abitis, Ye shall, or m/Z Zo^e, 

3. Am-abunt, Tliey shall, or will love. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have loved. 168. 

Sfo^k 1. Am-avero, I shall, or will have loved, 

2. Am-averis, Thou shalt, or m'Z^ Aowe loved, 

3. Am-averit, JEfe sAa/Z, or will have loved ; 

Plur. 1. Am-averimus, We shall, or m/Z have loved, 

2. Am-averitis, Fe shall, or wiZZ Aave Zcwea 7 , 

3. Am-averint, They shall, or will have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can love. 171. 

Sing. 1. Am-em, I may, or ccm Zoi>e, 

2. Airi-es, Thou mayst, or ccmsZ love, 

3. Am-et, i/e may, or can love; 

Plur. 1. Am-emiH, We may, or am love, 

2. Am-etis, Fe may, or can love, 

3. Am-ent, They may, or am Zo#£. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should love. 172. 

jStngr. 1. Am-arem, I might love, 

2. Am-ares, Thou mightst love, 

3. Am-aret, He might love; 

Plur. 1. Am-aremus, We might love, 

2. Am-aretis, Ye might love, 

3. Am-arent, They might love. 

Perfect, may have loved. 173. 

Sing. 1. Am-averim, I may have loved, 

2. Am-averis, Thou mayst have loved, 

3. Am-averit, He may have loved; 

Plur. 1. Am-averTmus, We may have loved, 

2. Am-averitis, Ye may have loved, 

3. Am-averint, They may have loved. 



§56 



THE 7ERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 



121 



Plur. 1. Am-avissemus, 

2. Am-avissetis, 

3. Am-avissent, 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have. 174. 

Sing. 1. Am-avissem, I might have loved, 

2. Am-avisses, Thou mights t have loved, 

3. Am-avisset, He might have loved; 

We might have loved, 
Ye might have loved, 
They might have loved 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2. Am-a, or am-ato, Love thou, 149. 

3. Am-ato, Let him love ; 

2. Am-ate, or am-atote, Love ye, 

3. Am-anto, Let them love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Am-are, To love 178 and 180. 

Am-avisse, To have loved, 

Esse am-aturus, a, um, To be about to love, 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Pres, 

Pere, 

Fut. 

F.-Perf. Fuisse am-aturus, a, um, To have been about to love. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Am-ans, Loving. 

Fut. Am-aturus, a, um, About to- love. 

GERUNDS. 



Nom. Am-andum, 
Gen. Am-andi, 
Dat. Am-ando, 
Ace. Am-andum, 
Abl. Am-ando, 



SUPINES. 



Former, Am-atum, 
Latter, Am-atu, 



Loving, 

Of loving, 

To loving, 

Loving, 

With, from, &c., loving. 

To love. 

To be loved, to love. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



PfiES. 

Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 
Fut. 



Indicative. 

Amo, 

Amabam, 

Amavi, 

Amaveram, 

Amabo, 



F.-Perf. \ Amavero. 



Subjunctive. 

Amem, 

Amarem, 

Arnaverim, 

Amavissem. 



Imp. 

Ama. 



Infinitive. 
A mare, 

Amavisse, 

Esse amaturus, 
Fuisse amaturus. 



Participles. 
Amans. 



Amaturus 



122 



THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 



57 



Cre-o, 
R6g-o, 
Voc-o, 
Dom-o, 



After the same manner, inflect : 



cre-are, 
rog-are, 
voc-are, 
dom-are, 



cre-avi, 
rog-avi, 
voc-avi, 
dom-iii, 



cre-atum, 
rog-atum, 
voc-atum, 
dom-itum, 



To create. 
To ask. 
To call 
To tame. 



190.— § 57. EXERCISES ON THE FIRST CONJUGA 
TION; ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, conjugate it; give the tense, — mood, — 
voice, — person,— number, and translation of the following words, always observ- 
ing the same order ; thus, — Amo, a verb transitive, first conjugation, amo % 
amare, amavi, am&tum. It is found in the present indicative active, first 
person singular, " I love," " I do love," " I am loving." 

Amabat, amaverat, amet, amaventis, amabunt, creavimus, 
creaverat, domuerat, domuisset, amavero, domuero, vocaverim, 
voca, voeare, doma, creavisse, domuisse, amaturus, domiturus, 
amans, amanclum, amatu, domitum, domabam, domabo, — 
creat, crearet, amaret, amavisti, am aver e, domuistis, amato, 
amando, amaverunt, creare, vocaverunt, vocaverint, vocabunt, 
vocaretis, domabitis, &c., &c., ad libitum. 

2. Translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of 
the verb used; thus, — "I was loving," amabam, in the imperfect indicative 
active, first person singular. 

He will love, I might love, I had loved, I might have loved, 
he shall love, I may love, he created, I called, I may have 
called, he will tame, he has tamed, he would have tamed, love 
thou, let them love, to love, about to love, of loving, to have 
loved, they were loving, they have loved, thou hast created, 
thou hast tamed, &c, ad libitum. 

3. The Infniuve with a subject. The infinitive, after another verb, and 
with an accusative before it as its subject, is translated, into English, in 
the indicative or potential mood ; and the accusative in Latin is made the 
nominative in English ; as, dlcit me amare, " he says that I love." The 
accusatives are thus translated : 



Me, that I ; 
Te, that thou : 
Ilium, that he ; 



nos, that we ; 
vos, that you ; 
ill os, that they; 



hommem, that the man. 
honunes, that the men. 
feminas, that the women. 



§ 57 THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 123 

Infinitives, after verbs of the present, past, and future tenser, are 
rendered as in the examples, ISO, or according to the following 
rules ; viz. : 

Rule I. When the preceding verb is of the present or future 
tense, the present infinitive is translated as the present indicative ; 
the perfect infinitive, as the perfect indicative ; and the future in- 
finitive, as the future indicative. 180, Nos. 1, 4, 7; also 3, 6, 9. 

Rule. II. When the preceding verb is in past time (i. e. in 
the imperfect, perfect, or 'pluperfect tense), the present infinitive 
is translated as the imperfect, or jwfeci indicative ; the perfect 
infinitive, as the pluperfect indicative ; and the future infinitive, 
as the imperfect subjunctive. 180, Nos. 2, 5,-8. 

Rule III. The future perfect of the infinitive with a subject, 
is alivays translated as the pluperfect subjunctive, whatever be the 
tense of the preceding verb. 180, Nos. 10, 11, 12. 

4. According to the preceding rules, and the examples referred to, trans- 
late the following sentences into English — observing that die it, "he says," 
is present time; dixit, "he said," past; and dlcet, "he will say," 
future. 

Licit me vocare, — te amare, — nos amavisse, — vos amaturos 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, — illos domare, — te amaturum 
esse, — illos rogaturos esse, — homines rogaturos fuisse. 

Dixit me vocare, — te amare, — nos amavisse,. — nos amaturos 
esse, — nos amaturos fuisse, — vos domare, — te amaturum 
esse, — ilium rogavisse, — -vos rogare, — illam rogattiram esse. 

Dixit nos vocare ; — dlcet ilium creare ; — elicit te creaturum 
esse; — dixit se amaturum (179, Note 1); dlcit illos creatu- 
ros, — ilium vocaturum, — vos domituros esse, — domituros 
fuisse, — me rogare, — te rogavisse. — vos rogaturos, &c. 

5. Translate the follovnng English into Latin, taking care to put the 
participle of the future infinitive in the same gender, number, and case, as 
the accusative preceding it. 

He said that I loved, — that I was calling. He says that 
they will tame — that I would have created, — that they will 
call, — that he loves. He will say that I love, — that I have 
loved, — that I wall love. He said that I had called, — that 
they w^ould have called, — that they tamec\ — that they would 
tame, — that he would have tamed. He says that I am asking, 
— that they are asking, — that they are calling, — that we did 
call, — that they do ask, — that we will ask, &c. 



124 THE VERB. — FIKST CONJUGATION. § 58 

191.— § 58. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Per/. Par*. 
Amor, amari, amatus ; To be hied 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, am loved. 157-6. 

S. 1. Am-or, lam loved, 

2. Am-aris, or -are, Thou art loved, 

3. Am-atur, He is loved ; 

P. 1. Am-amur, We are loved, 

2. Am-amini, Ye are loved, 

3. Am-antur, They are loved. 

Imperfect, was loved. 160-5. 

S. 1. Am-abax, I was loved, 

2. Am-abaris, or-abare, Thou wast loved, 

3. Am-abatur, He was loved; 

P. 1. Am-abamur, We were loved, 

2. Am-abamini, Ye were loved, 

3. Am-abantur, They were loved. 

Perfect, have been loved, was loved, am loved. 164-5. 

S. 1. Am-atus*sum, or fui, I have been loved, &c, 

2. Am-atus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been loved t 

3. Am-atus est, or fuit, He has been loved; 

P. 1. Am-ati stimus, or mimus, We have been loved, 

2. Am-ati estis, or fuistis, Ye have been loved, 

3. Am-ati sunt, fuerunt, or fuere, They have, been loved. 

Pluperfect, had been loved. 166-2 

S. 1. Am-atus eram, or fueram, I had been loved, 

2. Am-atus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been loved. 

3. Am-atus erat, or fuerat, He had been loved; 

P. 1. Am-ati eramus, or fueramus, We had been loved, 

2. Am-ati eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been loved, 

3. Am-ati erant, or fuerant, They had been loved. 

* Seo 1G4^5. NoU. — Fui and fuisti, are very seldom found with the perfect 
»articiple. JUro, as well SLsfulro, is used in the future-perfect. 16S-4. 



§ 58 THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 125 

Future, shall, or will be loved. 167-3. 

S. 1. Am-abor, I shall, or will be loved, 

2. Am-aberis, or -abere, Thou shalt, or wilt be loved, 

3. Am-abitur, He shall, or will be loved; 

P. 1 . Am-abimur, We shall, or will be loved, 

2. Am-abiiriini. Ye shall, or will be loved, 

3. Am-abuntur, They shall, or will be loved. 

Future -perfect, shall, or will have been loved. 168-4. 

S. 1. Am-atus fuero, I shall have been loved, 

2. Am-atus fueris, Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. Am-atus fuerit, He will have been loved; 

P. 1. Am-ati fuerimus, We shall have been loved, 

2. Am-ati fueritis, Ye will have been loved, 

3. Am-ati fuerint, They will have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be loved. 

S. 1. Am-er, I may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-eris, or -ere, Thou mayst, or canst be loved, 

3. Am-etur, He may, or can be loved; 

P. 1. Am-emur, We may, or can be loved, 

2. Am-emini, Ye may, or can be loved, 

3. Am-entur, They may, or can be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should hi loved. 

S. 1. Am-arer, I might be loved, 

2. Am-areris, or -arere, Thou mightst be loved, 

3. Am-aretur, He might be loved; 

P. 1. Am-aremur, We might be loved, 

2. Am-aremini, Ye 'might be loved, 

3. Am-arentur, They might be lovtd. 

Perfect, may have been loved. 

S. 1. Am-atus sim, or fuerim, I may have been loved, 

2. Am-atus sis, or fueris, T/wu mayst have been loved, 

3. Am-atus sit, or fuerit, He may have been loved; 

P. 1. Am-ati slmus, or fuerimus, We may have been loved, 

2. Am-ati sltis, or fueritis, Ye may have been loved, 

3. Am-ati sint, or fuerint, They may have been loved. 



126 



THE VERB. — FIRST CONJUGATION. 



§58 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

S. 1. Am-atus essem, or fuissem, I might have been loved, 

2. Am-atus esses, or fuisses, Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. Am-atus "esset, or fuisset, He might have been loved ; 

P. 1. Am-ati essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been loved, 

2. Am-ati essetis, or missetis, Ye might have been loved, 

3. Am-ati essent, or fuissent, They might have been loved 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Sing. 2. Am-are, or -ator, 
3. Am-ator, 

Plur. 2. Am-ammi, 
3. Am-antor, 



Be thou loved, 
Let him be loved; 

Be ye loved, 

Let them be loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Am-ari, To be loved. 178, and 180. 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse am-atus, To have been loved. 
Fut. Am-atum Iri, To be about to be loved. 



Perf. 
Fut. 



Am-atus, a, um, 
Am-anclus, a, um, 



PARTICIPLES. 

Loved, being loved, having been 



\ loved. 



\ 



To be loved, proper, or neces 
sary to be loved. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. Imper. Infinitive. Participles 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Fut. 

F.-Perf. 



Amor, 
Amabar, 

Amatus sura, 

Amatus eram, 
Arnabor, 
Amatus fuero. 



Airier, 
Amarer, 

Amatus sim, 

Amatus essem. 



Amare. 



Amari, 

j' Es?e, or 

\ Fuisse amatus. 

Amatum iri. 



>• Amatu? 
Amandus 



Creor, 
Rogor, 
Vocor, 

Domor. 



After the same manner, inflect : 
creatus, 



crean, 
rogari, 
vocari, 
domari, 



rogatus, 
vocatus, 
domitus, 



To be created. 

To be asked. 

To be called. 

To be tamed. 



& 



§ 59 THE VEEB. — FIEST CONJUGATION. 127 

192.— § 59. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation of the verb, — conjugate it ; — give the tense, mood^ 
voice, person, number, and translation, of the following words, always follow- 
ing the same order; thus, — A mor, verb transitive, first conjugation ; amo 
amdre, amavi, amdtum, — found in the present indicative passive, first per 
son singular, " I am loved" 

Amabatur, amantur, amatus est, amabitur, amabar, am are 
tur, amentur, amatus sim, amatus fuero, amati fuerunt, amati 
essemus, amabamini, amaris, amatus esset, amati fuissent. 
amabuntur, amantor, amare, amatus esse, amatus, amatum Iri, 
amandus, amemini, amaremmi, amantur, creatur, crearetur, 
vocabltur, domantur, vocatus sum ; &c. 

2. translate the following English words into Latin, giving the part of 
the verb used; thus, " I am loved," amor, in the present indicative passive, 
first person singular. 

He is loved, they are loved, I have been loved, they were 
created, he had been called, they will be tamed, 1 might be 
loved, they may have been loved, to be loved, to have been 
called, I had been called, being called, they are tamed, they 
have been tamed, he will be loved, they will have been loved, 
they may be called, I may be called, he might have been 
created, they will be loved, &c. 

3. Translate the following sentences into English, according to the 
rules 190. 

Dlcit eum amari, — illosr vocatos esse, — me vocatum iri, — te 
amatum Iri, — me creari, — eos domari, — ilium amatum fir : sse, 
— nos domitos esse, — nos domltum iri, — illos amari, — illos 
vocatum iri. 

Dixit eum amari, — illos vocatos esse, — me vocatum iri, — te 
amatum iri, — me creari, — eos domari, — ilium amatum fuisse, 
— nos dojmtos esse, — nos domltum iri, — ijlos amari, — illos 
vocatum Iri, — te amari. 

Dicet eum amari, &c, as in the preceding. 

4. Translate the following English into Latin, taking care that the par- 
ticiple of the perfect infinitive be put in the same gender, number, and case, 
as the accusative before it. O 

He says that I am loved,— that he was loved, — that he will 
:lled, — that they w^re created, — that we were tamed. Hi 



128 THE YEEB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. § 60 

said that I was called, — that we were created, — that they had 
been created. He will say that I was loved, — that I will be 
loved, — that they will be called, — that you are called, — that 
he will be called. He said that they had been tamed, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Active and the Passive 

Voice. 

5. Give the designation, &c, as directed No. 1. Amabo, 
amarem, amaretur, amatus sim, amant, vocatur, crearentur, 
domantur, domitum iri, creari, amant, amabuntur, amarent, 
amavissent, amaverat, ametis, amatis, amabatis, amaveris, 
ama, amavisse, amandum, amatur, vocatum Iri, vocatus es, 
vocati erant, vocatus esset {dlcit se, " he says that he "), ama- 
turum esse, {dixit se, a he said that he,") amare, amari, (nos, 
" that we,") vocatos esse, amanto, amabunt, amavistis, ama- 
vere, amaretis, (yos, " that you,") rogare, rogavisse, rogatos 
esse, rogaturos fuisse, rogabunt. 

Conjugate and inflect the following verbs like Amo; viz : 

Accuso, / accuse. Certo, / strive. Reparo, / repair. 

iEstimo, / value. Cogito, / think. Rogo, / ask. 

Ambulo, / walk. Festino, / hasten. Servo, / keep. 

Curo, / care. Navigo, / sail. Vito, / shun. 



193.— § 60. SECOND CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. hid. Pres. Inf. Per/. Ind. Svpine. 
Moneo, monere, monui, monltum,. To advise* 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, I advise, do advise, am advising. 157 

S. 1. Mon-eo, I advise, 

2. Mon-es, Thou advisest, 

3. M6n-et, He advises; 

P. 1. Mon-emus, We advise, 

2. Mon-ctis, Ye advise, 

3. Mon-cnt, They advise* 



§ 60 THE VERB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 12 

Imperfect, advised, did advise, was advising, 159. 

S. 1. Mon-ebam, I advised, 

2. Mon-ebas, Thou advisedst, 

3. Mon-ebat, He advised; 

P. 1. Mon-ebamus, We advised, 

2. Mon-ebatis, Ye advised, 

3. Mon-ebant, They advised. 

Perfect Def., have advised; Indef., advised, did advise. 16 J 

S. 1. Monu-i, I have advised, 

2. Monu-isti, Thou hast advised, 

3. Monu-i t, He has advised; 

P. 1. Monu-imus, We have advised, 

2. Monu-istis, Ye have advised, 

3. Monu-erunt, or -ere, They have advised. 

Pluperfect, had advised. 165. 

S. 1. Monu-eram, I had advised. 

2. Monu-eras, Thou hadst advised, 

3. Monu-erat, He had advised ; 

P. 1. Monu-eramus, We had advised, 

2. Monu-eratis, Ye had advised, 

3. Monu-erant, They had advised. 

Future, shall, or will advise. 167. 

S. 1. Mon-ebo, I shall, ov will advise, 

2. Mon-ebis, Thou sha.lt, or wilt advise 

3. Mon-ebit, He shall, or will advise; 

P. 1. Mon-ebimus, We shall, or will advise, 

2. Mon-ebitis, Ye shall, or will advise, 

3. Mon-ebunt, They shall, or will advise 

Future-Perfect, shall, or will have advised. 168. 

& 1. Monu-ero, I shall, or m# have advhed, 

2. Monu-eris, jTAcw shalt, or wift Aai>e advisee 

3. Monu-erit, iife s/*a^, or will have advised ; 

P. 1. Monu-erimus, We shall, ov will have advised 

2. Monu-eritis, Ye shall, or m7Z Aaz^ advised, 

3. Monu-erint, TTby sAa/Z, or ivill have advisee 

7* 



ISO THE VERB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. § 6C 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can advise. 171. 

S. 1. Mon-eam, I may, or can advise, 

2. Mon-eas, Thou mayst, or canst advise, 

3. Mon-eat, He may, or can advise ; 

P. 1. Mon-eamus, We may, or can advise, 

2. Mon-eatis, Pe may, or am advise, 

8. Mon-eant, T/z^y ???c?y, or ccm advise. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should advise. 172. 

& 1. Mon-erem, I might advise, 

2. Mon-eres, Thou mightst advise, 

3. Mon-eret, He might advise ; 

P. 1. Mon-eremus, TFe might advise, 

2. Mon-eret is, Fe might advise, 

3. Mon-erent, « TTiey might advise. 

Perfect, may have advised. 173. 

& 1. Monu-erim, I may have advised, 

2. Monu-eris, Thou mayst have advised, 

3. Monu-erit, He may have advised ; 

P. 1. Monu-erimus, We may have advised, 

2. Monu-eritis, Ye may have advised, 

3. Monu-erint, They may have advised. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have advised. 174. 

5. 1. Monu-issem, I might have advised, 

2. Monu-isses, Thou mightst have advised, 

3. Monu-isset, He might have advised. ; 

P. 1 . Monu-issemus, We might have advised, 

2. Monu-issetis, Ye might have advised, 
"3. Monu-issent, They might have advised. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

6. 2. M6n-e, or -eto, Advise thou (149), 

3. Mon-eto, Let him advise ; 

P. 2. Mon-ete, or etote, Advise ye or you, 

3. Mon-ento, Let them advise. 



§ 61 



THE VERB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



131 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Mon-ere, 
Perf. Monu-isse, 
Fut. Esse moniturus, 
F.-Perf. Fuisse moniturus, 



To advise (178 and 180), 

To have advised , 

To be about to advise, 

To have been about to advise. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. Mon-ens, 
Fut. Mon-iturus, 



Advising, 
About to advise. 



GERUNDS. 



Nom. 

Gen. 

Bat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 



Mon-endum, 

Mon-endi, 

Mon-endo, 

Mon-endum, 

Mon-endo, 



Advising, 
Of advising, 
To advising, 
Advising, 
. With, &c, advising. 



SUPINES. 



Former, Mon-itum, 
Latter, Mon-itu, 



To advise, 

To be advised, or to advise. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pres. 

Imp. 

Perf. 

Plup. 

Put. 

F.-Perf. 



Indicative. 

Moneo, 

Monebam, 

Monui, 

Monueram, 

Monebo, 

Monuero. 



Subjunctive. Imper. Infinitive. 



Monearn, 
Monerern, 
Monuerim, 
Monuissem. 



Mone. | Monere, 
I Monuisse, 



Esse moniturus, 
Fuisse moniturus. 



Participle? 
Monens, 



Monituras 



After the same manner, inflect ■ 



Doc-eo, 
Jub-eo, 
Vid-eo, 



doc-ere, 
jub-ere, 
vid-ere, 



docu-i, 

juss-i, 

vld-i, 



doc-tum, 
jus-sum, 
vi-sum. 



To teach. 
To order 
To see. 



194.— § 61. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE 

1. Give the designation, &c, as directed 190-1. — Monebo 
monuit, noneret, monuerit, mone, monuisse, monens, ;mo 
nendum, monebat, monent, monento, monuisti, monuere 



132 THE YEKB. — SECOND CONJUGATION, § 62 

monueratis, monuissent. — Docent, jubebat, jusserat, videret, 
videat, videbit, docueris, doce, docturus, jussurus, ^"sum, jussu, 
docens, &o. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, &c, as directed 190-2. 
— I have advised, I will advise, he may advise, I might advise,' 

he will have advised, they advise, they had advised, they 
might have advised, thou hast advised, ye have advised, I did 
/advise, he was advising. — He teaches, they taught, we, had 
ordered, we would have ordered, I saw, I have seen, thou wilt 
see, he may see, they would have ordered, &c. 

3. Translate according to the rules 190-3, 4. — Dlcit (he says) 

me monere, — nos monuisse, — illos monere, — vos monituros 
!esse, — me moniturum fuisse. — Dixit (he said) se monere, — nos 

videre, — eum vidisse, — nos visuros esse, — me visurum esse, — 

me visurum fuisse, — vos vidisse, — se docere, — nos docuisse, — 
• vos docturos esse, — illam [that she) visuram esse, — ilium 

docturum esse, &c. 

4. As directed 190-3 and 5. He says that I advised ; he 
said that I advised, — that I had advised, — that I would advise. 
He says that T will advise, — that I w r ould have advised. He 
said that he (se) saw, — had seen,— would see, — would have 
seen. / advise that you should order. He says that I am 
advising, — that we will order, &c. 



195.— § 62. PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part. 
Moneor, moneri, monitus, To he advised. 

Present Tense, am advised. 157-6. 

S. 1. Mon-eor, lam advised, 

2. Mon-eris, or -ere, Thou art advised, 

3. Mon-etur, He is advised; 

P. 1. Mon-emur, We are advised, 

2. Mon-emini, Ye are advised, 

3. Mon-entur, They are advised. 



§ 62 THE VEKB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 133 

Imperfect, was advised. 160-5. 

8. 1. Mon-ebar, I was advised, 

2. Mon-ebaris, or -ebare, Thou wast advised, 

3. Mon-ebatur, * He was advised; 

P. 1. Mon-ebamur, We were advised, 

2. Mon-ebamini, Ye were advised, 

3. Mon-ebantur, They were advised. 

Perfect, have been, was, am advised. 164-5. 

S. 1. Mon-itus sum, or fiii, I have been advised, 

2. Mon-itus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been advised, 

3. Mon-itus est, or fuit, He has been advised; 

P. 1. Mon-iti sumus, or fuimus, We have been advised, 

2. Mon-iti estis, or fuistis, Ye have been advised, 

3. Mon-iti sunt, fuerunt, &c., They have been advised. 

Pluperfect, had been advised. 166-2. 

S. 1. Mon-itus eram, or fueram, I had been advised, 

2. Mon-itus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been advised, 

3. Mon-itus erat, or fuerat, He had been advised ; 

P. 1. Mon-iti eramus, or fueramus, We had been advised, 

2. Mon-iti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been advised, 

3. Mon-iti erant, or fuerant, They had been advised. 

Future, shall, or will be advised. 167-3. 

S. 1 . Mon-ebor, / shall, or will be advised, 

2. Mon-eberis, or -ebere, Thou shalt, or wilt be advised, 

3. Mon-ebitur, He shall, or will be advised, 

P. 1. Mon-ebimur, We shall, or will be advised 

2. Mon-ebimini, Ye shall, or will be advised, 

3. Mon-ebuntur, They shall, or will be advised 

Future-Perfect, shall, or will have been advised. 168-4. 

S. 1 . Mon-itus fuero, / shall have been advised, 

2. Mon-itus fueris, Thou wilt have been advised, 

3. Mon-itus fuerit, He will have been advised; 

P. 1. Mon-iti fuerimus, We shall have been advised, 

2. Mon-iti fueritis, Ye will have been advised, 

3. Mon-iti fuerint, They will have been advised. 



134 



THE VERB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



62 



S. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be advised. 
1 Mon-ear, 



2. Mon-earis, or -eare, 

3. Mon-eatur, 

P. 1, Mon-eamur, 

2. Mon-eamini, 

3. Mon-eantur, 



I may be advised, 
Thou mayst be advised, 
He may be advised ; 

We may be advised, 
Ye may be advised, 
They may be advised. 



Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be advised. 



S. 1. Mon-erer, 

2. Mon-ereris, or -erere, 

3. Mon-eretur, 

P. 1. Mon-eremur, 

2. Mon-eremmi, 

3. Mon-erentur, 



I might be advised, 
Thou mights t be advised, 
He might be advised; 

We might be advised, 
Ye might he advised, 
They might be advised. 



S. Monitus sim, or fuerim, 
Monitus sis, or fueris, 
Monitus sit, or fuerit, 

P. Moniti simus, or fuerimus, 
Moniti sitis, or fueritis, 
Moniti sint, or fuerint. 



Perfect, may have been advised. 

I may have been advised, 
Thou mayst have been advised, 
He may have been advised, ; 

We may have been advised, 
Ye may have been advised, 
They may have been advised. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been advised. 

S. Monitus essem, or fuissem, I might have been advised, 
Monitus esses, or fuisses, Thou mijghtst have been advised^ 
Monitus esset, or fuisset, He might have been advised; 

P. Moniti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been advised, 
Moniti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been advised, 
Moniti essent, or fuissent, They might have been advised. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 2. Mon-ere, or -etor, 
3. Mon-etor, 

P. 2. Mon-emini, 
3 Mon-entor, 



Be thou advised, 
Let him be advised; 

Be ye advised, 

Let them be advised. 



§ 63 



THE VERB. — SECOND CONJUGATION. 



135 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pres. Mon-eri, To be advised (178-180), 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse monitus, To have been advised, 
Fut. Mon-ituri iri, To be about to be advised. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Perf. Mon-itus, a, urn, 
Fut. Mon-endus, a, urn, 



j Advised, being advised, or hav 
\ ing been advised, 
j To be advised, proper, or neces- 
\ sary to be advised. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 





Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Imper. 


Infinitive. Participles 


Pres. 


Moneor, 


Monear, 


Monere. 


Moneri, 




Imp. 


Monebar, 


Monerer, 








Perf. 


Monitus sum, 


Monitus sim, 




j Esse, or 

\ Fuisse monitus, 


> Monitus 


Plup. 


Monitus eram, 


Monitus essem. 








Fut. 


Monebor, 






Monitum iri. 


Monendus 


F.-Perf. 


Monitus fuero. 










After the same manner, inflect : 


Doceor, doceri, doctus, To be taught. 


Jubeor, juberi, jussus, To bje ordered. 


\ 


r ideor, 


videri, visus, 


To be seen 





196.- 



63. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 



1. Give the designation, "&c., as directed 192-1. Moneor, 
monetur, monebatur, monebitur, monitus est, moniti estis, 
moneamur, moneretur, monitus fuero, monere, moneri, mo- 
nitus, monitus esse, monendus. VioVretur, visus, visum Iri, 
docerentur, doceantur, docemmi, doceamini, jubebitur, jussi 
fuerunt, juberentur, jubetor, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed' 192-2 : I 
was advised, he has been advised ; — he may be advised, we 
will be advised, we were advised, I am advised, they might 
have been advised. Be ye advised, to be about to be advised, 
to be advised, he may have been seen; — they should be ordered, 
we will be seen, they ^ill be taught, having been taught, ne- 
cessary to be taught, let them be taught ; they have been 



136 THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. § 64 

ordered, we might have been ordered, to be about to be 
ordered, being ordered, they may have been ordered, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Second Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c, as directed 190-1, 192-1. Mo- 
nebam, monuerat, monuerit, monebunt, moneam, mone, mo- 
il ebar, monitus es, monuit, moneri, doctus sum, docear, 
docerer, docebitur, docento, docentor, docentur, jubet, jus- 
serunt, jusserint, jubebo, juberentur, jussus esse, jiibe, video, 
vident, videretur, vide, vidistis, videratis, viderent, videro, 
videndum, videns, visurus, vidisse, visum iri, videri, mone- 
buntur, moneantur, viderentur, jusserim, jubebam, juberer, 
videntur, docuerunt, doce, docens. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-2^ 
192-2 : I am advised, he advises, they will advise, ye have 
advised, they will have advised, he will be advised, he is 
taught, he has taught, they will teach, I will see, they may 
see, they are seen, he has been seen, to order, to have been 
ordered, ordering, about to order, to have seen, I might see, 
I might have been seen, they will not (non) see, he will not 
see, I do not advise, he is teaching, he is not teaching, he will 
not order, I will order, &c. 

5. As directed 190-3, 192-4. Licit se monere, — nos monu- 
isse, — eum moniturum esse, — vos videre, — eum visum iri. 
Lixit se monere, — nos monuisse, — eum moniturum esse, — 
vos videre, — eum visum iri. Licet se monere, &c, — vos mo- 
nuisse, — homines monituros esse, — feminam monituram esse, 
vos jubere. 

6. As directed 190-5. He says that he advises,- — that he will 
advise, — that we have advised. He said that I advised, — that 
he had advised, — that they would have advised, — that I would 
order, — would have ordered, — would have been ordered, — was 
taught, — had been taught, — would have been taught, &c. 



197.— § 64. THIRD CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Ind. Supine. 
Reg-o, re^-ere, rex-i. rect-um, To rule. 



§ 64 THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. I 137 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, rule, do rule, am ruling. 157. 

S. 1. Reg-o, I rule, do rule, am ruling, 

2. Re^-is,* Thou rulest, dost rule, art ruling, 

3. Re^-it, He rules, does rule, is ruling ; 
P. 1. Re^r-imus, We rule, do rule, are ruling, 

2. Re^r-itis, Ye rule, do rule, are ruling, 

3. Reg-unt, They rule, do rule, are ruling. 

Imperfect, ruled, did rule, was ruling. 159. 

S. 1. Re^-ebam, I ruled, did rule, was ruling, 

2. Re^-ebas, Thou ruledst, didst rule, wast rulinq i 

3. Re^-ebat, He ruled, did rule, was ruling ; 
P. 1. Re^-ebamus, We ruled, did rule, ivere ruling, 

2. Re^r-ebatis, Ye ruled, did rule, were ruling, 

3. Re^-ebant, They ruled, did rule, were ruling. 

Perfect Def., have ruled; Indef., ruled, did rule. 161. 

S. 1. Rex-i, I have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-isti, Thou hast ruled, ruledst, didst rule 

3. Rex-it, He has ruled, ruled, did rule; 
P. 1. Rex-imus, We have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

2. Rex-istis, . Ye have ruled, ruled, did rule, 

3. Rex-erunt, or -ere, They have ruled, ruled, did rule. 

Pluperfect, had ruled. 165. 

S. 1. Rex-eram, I had ruled, 

2. Rex-eras, Thou hadst ruled, 

3. Rex-erat, He had ruled; 
P. 1. Rex-eramus, We had ruled, 

2. Rex-eratis, Ye had ruled, 

3. Rex-erant, They had ruled. 

Future, shall, or will rule. 167. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I shall, or will rule, 

2. Re^-es, Thou shalt, or wilt rule, 

3. Re<7-et, He shall, or will rule; 
P. 1. Re^r-emus, We shall, or will rule, 

2. Re^-etis, Ye shall, or will rule, 

3. Re^-ent, They shall, or will rule. 

* (7 and g are hard before a, o, u, and soft like s and,;' before e and i. 17-8. 
Soft g is here marked in Italics, and sounds like j. 



138 • THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. § 64 

Future -perfect, shall, or will have ruled. 168. 

S. 1. Rex-ero, I shall, or will have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, Thou shalt, or wilt have ruled, 

3. Rex-erit, He shall, or will have ruled ; 

P. 1. Rex-enmus, We shall, or will have ruled, 

2. Rex-entis, Ye shall, or will have ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, They shall, or will have ruled. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can rule. 171. 

S. 1. Reg-am, I may , or can rule, 

2. Reg-as, jPAcm mayst, or cans£ rwfe, 

3. Reg-at, iZ^ ??z#y, or caw r^fe; 

P. 1. Reg-amus, We may, or era rule, 

2. Reg-atis, Pe way, or can rule, 

3. Reg-ant, They may, or c<m n*70. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should rule. 172. 

$. 1. Re^-erem, I might rule, 

2. Re^-eres, Jftow mightst rule, 

3. Re^-eret, iZe might rule; 

P. 1. Re^-eremus, We might rule, 

2. Re<7-eretis, Ye might rule, 

3. Referent, They might rule. 

Perfect, may have ruled. 173. 

5. 1. Rex-erim, I may have ruled, 

2. Rex-eris, Thou mayst have ruled. 

3. Rex-erit, He may have ruled; 

P. 1. Rex-erimus, We may have ruled, 

2. Rex-eritis, Ye may have ruled, 

3. Rex-erint, They may have ruled. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have ruled. 174. 

6. 1. Rex-issem, I might have ruled, 

2. Rex-isses, Thou mightst have ruled, 

3. Rex-isset, He might have ruled; 

P. 1. Rex-issemus, We might have ruled, 

2. Rex-issetis, Ye might have ruled, 

3. Rex-issent, They might have ruled. 



§.64 



THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



139 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 2. Heg-e, or -Ito, 

3. Re^-ito, 

P. 2. Re^-ite, or itote, 

3. Reg-unto, 



Rule thou, (149,) 
Let him rule ; 

Rule ye, 

Let them rule. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pres. Re^-ere, 
Perf. Rex-isse, 
Fut. Esse recturus, 
F.-Perf. Fuisse recturus, 



To rule (178-180), 

To have ruled, 

To be about to rule, 

To have been about to rule. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Pres. 
Fut. 



Rey-ens, 
Rect-urus, a, urn, 



Ruling. 
About to rule. 



GERUNDS. 



Norn. Re^-endum, 
Gen. Re^-endi, 
Dat. Re^-endo, 
Ace. Re^-endum, 
Abl. Re^-endo, 



Ruling, 

Of ruling, 

To ruling, 

Ruling, 

With, &c, ruling. 



SUPINES. 



Former, Rect-um, 
Latter, Rect-u, 



To rule. 

To be ruled, or to rule. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Pees. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 

Put. 
F.-Peef. 



Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Rego, 
Re^ebam 



\ Rexi, 

i Rexeram, 

| Regain, 

| Rexero. 



! Regain, 
Re^rerem, 
Rexerim, 
Rexissem. 



Imp. 
~Rege. 



Infinitive. 
Revere, 

Rexisse, 

Esse recturus, 
Fuisse recturus. 



Participles 
Re^eus, 



Recturus. 



After the same manner, inflect : 



Lego, legere, legi, 

Scrlbo, scribere, scripsi, 
Ca^do, csedere, cecldi, 



lectum, To read. 

scriptum, To write. 
caesura, To slay. 



140 



THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§64 



198.— EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -70, ACTIVE VOICE. 



Pres. Ind. 
Capio, 



Pres. Inf. 
Capere, 



Perf. Ind. 
cepi, 



Supine. 
captum, 



To take 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Pres. Cap-io, -is, -it; -imus, -itis, -iunt. 

Imp. Capi-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 



Perf. 


Cep-i, 


-isti, -it ; 


-imus, 


-istis, 


) -erunt, or 
) -ere. 


Plup. 


Cep-eram, 


-eras, -erat ; 


-eramus, 


-eratis, 


-erant. 


Fut. 


Capi-am, 


-es, -et ; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


F. P. 


Cep-ero, 


-eris, -erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis, 


-erint. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 






Pres. 


Capi-am, 


-as, -ax j 


-amus, 


-atis, 


-ant. 


Imp. 


Cap-erem, 


-eres, -eret ; 


-eremus, 


-eretis, 


-erent. 


Perf. 


Cep-erim, 


-eris, -erit ; 


-erimus, 


-eritis. 


-erint. 


Plup. 


Cep-issem, 


-isses, -isset: 


-issemus, 


-issetis, 


-issent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Pres. Cape, or -ito, -ito; -ite, or -itote, 

INFINITIVE. 



-iunto. 



Pres. Cap-ere, 
Perf. Cep-isse, 


Fut. Esse capturus, 
F. Perf. Fuisse capturus. 


PARTICIPLES. 




Pres. Capiens, 


Fut. Capturus, 


a, um. 


GERUNDS. 


SUPINES. 




Nom. Capi-endum, 
Gen. Capi-endi, &c. 


Former, Captum, 
Latter, Captu. 

So also : 




Rapio, rapere, 
Fugio, fugere, 


rapui, rap turn, 
fugi, fugitum, 


To seize. 
To fee. 



§ 66 THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 141 

199.— § 65. EXERCISES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 190-1. — Regebam, 
rexisti, rexeram, regain, regerem, rexero, rexisset, rege, 
rexisse, regens. Scrlbit, scribebat, scripsit, scribemus, scriba- 
mus, legunt, legeret, leget, lege, legerunt, legerant. Capiunt, 
capiebat, capiunto, caperem, cepit, ceperim, ceperam, cepissem, 
capit, capere, capiendum, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-2. — 
He rules, we are ruling, he has ruled, we will rule, they will 
have ruled, ye might rule, they may rule, we will rule, they 
were ruling, he had ruled, they might have ruled. He has 
read, they will read,, we shall read, to have read, to have 
written, to write, writing, write thou, let them write. 

3. Translate according to the Rules 190-3, 4. (Dlcit, "he 
says,") me regere, — me scribere, — se rexisse, — nos recturos 
esse, — ilium scripsisse, — me scripturum fuisse, — vos lecttiros 
esse, — me capere, — vos cepisse,— vos capturos esse, — vos 
capturos fuisse. (Dixit, "he said,") me regere, — me rexisse, 
— me recturum esse, &c. 

4. As directed 190-5. — He says that I rule, — that he ruled, 
— that we write, — that they will write, — that he is about to 
write. He writes that he rules, — that you are reading, — that 
you will write. He said that he was writing, — that you had 
written,- — that we would write, — would have written. He will 
say that I am ruling, — was ruling, — will rule, &c. 



200.— § 66. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Part 

Reg-or, re#-i, rectus, To be ruled. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, am ruled. 157-6. 

S. 1. Reg-or, I am ruled, . 

2. Re^-eris, or -ere, Thou art ruled, 

3. Re<7-itur, He is ruled ; 
P. 1. Re^-imur, We are ruled, 

2. Re^-immi, Ye are ruled, 

3. Reg-untur, They are ruled. 



142 THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. § 66 

Imperfect, was ruled. 160-5. 

S. 1. Re^-ebar, I was ruled, 

2. Re^-ebaris, or -ebare, Thou wast ruled, 

3. Re^-ebatur, He was ruled ; 

P. 1. Re^-ebamur, We were ruled, 

2. Re^-ebammi, Ye were ruled, 

3. Re^-ebantur, They were ruled. 

Perfect, have been ruled, was ruled, am ruled. 164-5 

S. 1. Rectus sum, or fui, I have been ruled, 

2. Rectus es, or fuisti, Thou hast been ruled, 

3. Rectus est, or fuit, He has been ruled; 

P. 1. Recti sumus, or fuimus, We have been ruled, 

2. Recti estis, or fuistis, Ye have been ruled, 

3. Recti sunt, fuerunt, or mere, They have been ruled. 

Pluperfect, had been ruled. 166-2. 

S. 1. Rectus eram, or faeram, I had been ruled, 

2. Rectus eras, or fueras, Thou hadst been ruled, 

3. Rectus erat, or fuerat, . He had been ruled'; 

P. 1. Recti eramus, or fueramu^, We had been ruled, 

2. Recti eratis, or fueratis, Ye had been ruled, 

3. Recti erant, or fuerant, They had been ruled. 

Future, shall, or will be ruled. 167-3. 

S. 1. Reg-ar, / shall, or ws 11 be ruled, 

2. Re^-eris, or -ere, Thou shalt, or wilt be ruled 

3. Re^-etur, He shall, or will be ruled; 

P. 1 . Re^-emur, We shall, or will be ruled, 

2. Re^-emmi, Ye shall, or will be ruled, 

3. Re^r-entur, They shall, or will be ruled. 

Future-Perfect, shall, or will have been ruled. 168-1 

S. 1. Rectus fuero, I shall, or will have been ruled, 

2. Rectus fueris, Thou shalt, or wilt have been ruUa 

3. Rectus merit, He shall, or will have been ruled , 

P. 1. Recti fueriHius, We shall, or will have been ruled 

2. Recti fueritis, Ye shall, or will have been ruled, 

3. Recti fuerint, They shall, or will have been ruled 



§ 66 THE VERB.— THIRD CONJUGATION. 143 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can be ruled. 

S. 1. Reg-ar, I may, or can be ruled, 

2. Reg-aris, or -are, Thou may st or canst be ruled, 

3. Reg-atur, He may, or can be ruled ; 

P. 1. Reg-amur, We may, or can be ruled, 

2. Reg-amini, Ye may, or can be ruled. 

3. Reg-antur, , They may, or can be ruled, 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be ruled. 

S. 1. Re^-erer, I might be ruled, 

2. Re^r-ereris, or erere, Thou mights t be ruled 

3. Re^-eretur, He might be ruled ; 

P. 1 . Re^-eremur, We might be ruled, 

2. Re^-eremini, Ye might be ruled, 

3. Re^-erentur, They might be ruled. 

Perfect, may have been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus sim, or fuerim, I may have been ruled, 

2. Rectus sis, or fueris, Thou mayst have been ruled, 

3. Rectus sit, or fuerit, He may have been ruled; 

P. 1. Recti simus, or fuerimus, We may have been ruled, 

2. Recti sitis, or fueritis, Ye may have been ruled, 

3. Recti smt, or fuerint, They may have been ruled. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been ruled. 

S. 1. Rectus essern, or fuissem, I might have been ruled, 

2. Rectus esses, or fliisses, Thou mightsthave been ruled \ 

3. Rectus esset, or fuisset, He might have been ruled ; 

P, 1. Recti essemus, or fuissemus, We might have been ruled, 

2. Recti essetis, or fuissetis, Ye might have been ruled, 

3. Recti essent, or fuissent, They might have been ruled 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

S. 2. Heg-ere, or -iter, Be thou ruled, 

3. Re^-itor, Let him be ruled ; 

P. 2. Re^-immi, Be ye ruled, 

3. Reg-untor, Let them be ruled. 



144 



THE VERB. — THIRD CONJUGATION. 



§ 66 



Pres. Re#-i, 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse rectus, 

JFut. Rectum iri, 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

To be ruled (178 and 180), 
To have been ruled, 
To be about to be ruled. 



Perf. Rectus, a, urn, 
Put. Re^endus, a, um, 



PARTICIPLES. 

j Muled, being ruled, having 
( been ruled. 

j To be ruled, proper, or ne- 
( cessary to be ruled. 



Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses. 



Indicative. Subjunctive. Imper. 



Infinitive. 



Part. 



Pres. 
Imp. 

Perf. 


Regor, 
Re^ebar, 
Rectus sum, 


Regar, 
Re^erer, 
Rectus sim, 


Revere. 


Re>, 

Esse, or fuisse rectus, 


Rectus, 


Plup. 


Rectus eram, 


Rectus essem. 








Fut. 
F-Perf. 


Regar, 
Rectus fuero. 






Rectum IrL 


Re^endus. 


After the same manner, inflect : 


Legor, legi, lectus, To be read. 


Scrlbor, scribi, scriptus, To be written. 


C 


eedor, 


csedi, cassus. 


To be slain. 



201.— EXAMPLE OF VERBS IN -70.— PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Part. 

Capior, capi, captus, To be taken, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 

i -pn s or ) . 

Pres. Cap-ior, < ~ ' >• -ltur ; -unur, -rmini, 

Imp. Capi-ebar, -j _ ^„ ' {• -ebatur ; -ebamur, -ebamini, 

Perf. Captus sum, or fui ; captus es, or fuisti, <fcc. 

Plup. Captus eram, or fue'ram ; captus eras, or fueras, &e. 

Fur. Cap-iar, •] _ % ' l -etur ; -emur, -emiui, 

F.-P. Captus fue'ro, captus fuSris, captus fuSrit, <fec. 



8. 

-iuntur. 

-ebantur 



-entur 



67 



THE VEKB.— THIRD CONJUGATION. 



145 



' 1. 



Pais. Cap-iar, j ;*™ s ' or I -atur, 

Imp. Cap-erev, j -«™. «■ Uretur; 
r ( -erere, ) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

2. 3. 1. 2. 8. 

-amur, -amini, -antur. 



-eremur, -eremini, -erentur. 



Perf. Captus sim, or fuerim ; captus sis, or fueris, <ta. 
Plup. Captus essem, or fuissem ; captus esses, or fuisses, &c 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

2. 3. 2. 

Pres. Cap-ere, or -itor, -itor; -imini, 



3. 

-iuntor. 



INFINITIVE, 



Pres. Cap-i, 

Perf. Esse, or fuisse captus, 

Fut. Captum iri. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Perf. Captus, a, um. 
Fut. Capiendus, a, um. 



So also 



Rapior, rapi, 



raptus, 



To be seized. 



202.— § 67. EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

1. Give the designation, &c., as directed 192-1. — Regitur, 
regetur, regimini, rectus est, rectus fuerit, regerer, regar, 
regor, regere, reguntor, rectus, rectum iri, rectus esse, regi, 
regebatur, reguntur, regentur, rectus sim, rectus esset. Capiar, 
capiuntur, capiuntor, capiebatur, captus sum, &c. 

2. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 192—2. — 
He is ruled, I was ruled, they will be ruled, they have been 
ruled, we might be ruled, he might have been ruled, they 
were ruled, ye had been ruled, to have been ruled, being 
ruled, to be ruled, let them be ruled. They are taken, they 
will be taken, let them be taken, they have been taken, he will 
be taken, they might be taken, be thou taken, &c. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Third Conjugation. 

3. Give the designation, &c, as directed 190-1 and 192-1. 
— Regebat, rexerunt, rexerat, reget, rexit, rexerint, legit, legit, 



140 THE VERB. — FOURTH CONJUGATION. § 68 

leget, legat, legerit, scripserit, scripsisse, scribitur, scrip tus est, 
scriptum iri, legi, legere, legisse, rexisse, lectus esse x legitor, 
rectus, regens, scripturus, scribendus, lectu, scribere, scripsere, 
legere. legere, legimini, capiunt, capiuntor, captus sum, capitur, 
capitor, ceperunt, ceperint, scriptum esse, rexi, regi, regain, 
regeret, &c. 

4. Translate the following into Latin, as directed 190-2, 
192-2. — I rule, I am ruled, he rules, they are ruled, they have 
ruled, they have been ruled, they will rule, he might rule, 
they might be ruled, we will read, he may have been taken, 
they will have been ruled, he might have written, to be ruled, 
rule thou, let him be ruled, they were writing, they might 
write, to have written, to have read, to have ruled, to have 
taken, they had written, had ruled, had read, had taken. 



203.— § 68. FOURTH CONJUGATION. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf Lid. Supine. 
Audio, audire, audivi r audi turn, To hear 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense, hear, do hear, am hearing. 157. 

8. 1. Aud-io, I hear, do hear, am hearing, 

. 2. Aud-is, Thou hearest, dost hear, art hearing, 

3. Aud-it, He hears, does hear, is hearing ; 

P. 1. Aud-imus, We hear, do hear, are hearing, 

2. Aud-Itis, Ye hear, do hear, are hearing, 

3. Aud-iunt, They hear, do hear, are hearing. 

Imperfect, heard, did hear, was hearing. 159. 

S. 1 . Audi-ebam, / heard, did hear, was hearing, 

2. Audi-ebas, Thou heardst, didst hear, toast hearing, 

3. Audi-ebat, He heard, did hear, teas hearing ; 

P. 1. Audi-ebamus, We heard, did hear, were hearing, 

2. Audi-ebatis, Ye heard, did hear, were hearing, 

3. Audi-ebant, They heard, did hear, were hearing 



§ 68 THE VERB. — FOURTH CONJUGATION". 147 

Perfect Def., have heard; Indef., heard, did hear. 161. 

S, 1. Audiv-i, I have heard, heard, did hear, 

2. Audiv-isti, Thou hast heard, heardst, didst hear, 

3. Audlv-it, He has heard, heard, did hear ; 

P. 1. Audiv-imus, We have heard, heard, did hear, 

2. Audiv-istis, Ye have heard, heard, did hear, 

: ' ' y They have heard, heard, did hear. 
-ere, j 

Pluperfect, had heard. 165. 

S. 1. Audiv-eram, I had heard, ; 

2. Audiv-eras, Thou hadst heard, 

3. Audiv-erat, He had heard; 

P. 1. Audiv-eramus, We had heard, 

2. Audiv-eratis, Ye had heard, 

3. Audiv-erant, They had heard. 

Future, shall, or will hear. 167. 

S. 1 . Audi-am, / shall, or will hear, 

2. Audi-es, Thou shalt, or wilt hear, 

3. Audi-et, He shall, or m/Z Ae«r; 

P. 1. Audi-emus, "PFe s/za/Z, or will hear, 

2. Audi-etis, Ye shall, or wzVZ Afar, 

3. Audi-ent, They shall, or will hear. 

Future-perfect, shall, or will have heard. -168. 

5. 1. Audiv-ero, I shall or we7Z have heard, 

2. Audiv-eris, 7%o«* shalt, or 101& /zare heard, 

3. Audiv-erit, ZTc sAa//, or will have heard ; 

P. 1. AudiT-erimus, 'We shall, or will have heard, 

2. Audiv-erltis, Fe shall, or m7Z /zaz'e heard, 

3. Audiv-erint, J7?ey sAa/Z, or will have heard. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense, may, or can hear. 171. 

5. 1. Audi-am, I may, or ca/? Aear, 

2, Audi-as, Thou mayst, or ca?zs£ hear, 

3. Audi-at, JTe may, or can hear; 

P. 1. Audi-amus, We may, or ca/i hear, 

2. Audi-atis, Fe may, or oan hear, 

3. Audi-ant, They may, or caw A<?ar. 



148 THE VERB. — FOUBTH CONJUGATION. § 68 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should hear. 172 

S. 1. Aud-irem, I might hear, 

2. Aud-ires, Thou mightst hear, 

3. Aud-iret, He might hear ; 

P. 1. Aud-iremus, We might hear, * 

2. Aud-iretis, Ye might hear, 

3. Aud-irent, They might hear. 

Perfect, may have heard. 173. 

S. 1. Audiv-erim, I may have heard, 

2. Audiv-eris, Thou mayst have heard, 

3. Audiv-erit, He may have heard; 

P. 1. Audiv-erimus, We may have heard, 

2. Audiv-eritis, Ye may have heard, 

3. Audiv-erint, They may have heard. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should hear. 174. 

S. 1. Audiv-issem, I might have heard, 

2. Audiv-isses, Thou mightst have heard, 

3. Audiv-isset, He might have heard; 

P. 1. Audiv-issemus, We might have heard, 

2. Audiv-issetis, Ye might have heard, 

3. Audiv-issent, They might have heard. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



S. 2. 
3. 


Aud-i, or -Ito, 
Aud-ito, 


Hear thou (149), 
Let him hear ; 


P. 2. 
3. 


Aud-Ite, or -itote, 
Aud-iunto, 


Hear ye, or you, * 
Let them hear.- 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Pres. Aud-Ire, 
Perf. Audiv-isse, 
Fut. Esse auditurus, 
F.-Perf. Fuisse auditurus, 


To hear (178-180), 

To have heard, 

To be about to hear, 

To have been about to hear. 




PARTICIPLES. 


Pres. 
Fut. 


Audiens, 
Aud-iturus, a, um, 


Hearing, 
About to hear. 




§ 80 COMPOUND VERBS. 1G5 

§ 80. COMPOUND VERBS. 

215. — Verbs are compounded chiefly with prepositions, 
which modify the simple verb according to their respective 
meanings ; thus, eo, " I go," in composition with different pre- 
positions, is modified by them ; as, adeo, " I go to ;" abeo, " I 
go from ;" exeo, " I go out ;" ineo, "I go in ;" <fec. In the for- 
mation of compounds, due regard must be paid to the follow- 
ing— 

General Rules. 

1 . Compound verbs form the perfect and supine in the same 
manner as simple verbs; as, amo, a metre, amdvi, amatum; 
red-amo, red-amdre, red-amdvi, red-amatum. 

2. Simple verbs which double the first syllable in the per 
feet, drop the reduplication in the compounds ; as, ' pello, pe- 
puli; re-pello, re-puli. Except prce-curro, re-pungo, and the 
compounds of do, sto, disco, and }iosco. 

3. Compound verbs which change a of the present into i, 
have e in the supine ; as, facio, per-Jicio ; supine, perfcetum. 
Except verbs ending in do, go ; with the compounds of habeo, 
placeo, salio, sapio, and statuo. 

4. Verbs which are defective in the perfect, likewise want 
the supine. 

5. The following changes, which happen to the preposition, 
and to the simple verb, in a state of composition, merit atten- 
tion. 

1st. A is used in composition before m and r. Ab is used before vowels, 
and d,f h,j, I, n, r, s. Before fero and fugio, it becomes au ; as, aufero, 
aufugio. Abs is used before c and i ; as, abscedo, abstuli. 

2d. Ad changes d into the first letter of the simple verb beginning with c. 
f ffi l> n > P> r -> s > 1 1 as J accurro, officio, aggero. In some writers, it remains 
unaltered ; as ; adficio. 

3d. Am (i. e. ambi, from u//</>f, circum), before c, q,f h, is changed into an ; 
as, anquiro, anhelo. Sometimes it assumes its own b ; as, ambio. 

4th. Circum remains unaltered. The m is sometimes changed ; as, cir 
cundo for circumdo ; or omitted ; as, circueo for circumeo. 

5th. Con, before a vowel or h, drops the n ; as, coaleo, cohibeo ; before I, its 
n becomes I ; and before b, m, p, it becomes m ; and before r, it changes n 
into r ; as, colligo, comblbo, commeo, compdro, corripio. With uro, b ia 
inserted after con, making comburo. 



166 LIST OF YEKBS. § 81 

6th. Di is used before d, a, /, m, n, v ; as, diduco, digladior. Dis and some- 
times di are used before r ; as, disrumpo, dirumpo ; likewise before j ; as 
disjudwo, dijudico. Dis is used before c, p, q, s, t; as, discumbo. dispello. 
Before sp aud si, s is removed ; and before /, it is changed into/; as, dis- 
plcio, disto, diffiteor. Before a vowel, it assumes r; as, dii'imo, from 
emo. 

*7th. i? is found before b, d, g, I, m, n, r, and before j and v ; as, ebibo, educo, 
ejicio, eveho. Ex is used before vowels, and also before h, c, p, q, t, s ; as, 
exaro, exhibeo, exculio ; before/ x becomes/; as, efficio. 

8th. In sometimes changes n into the first letter of the simple verb ; as, 
illudo ; but before b, m, p, it changes n into m ; as, irnbibo, im?nineo, im- 
pleo. 

9th. Ob generally remains •unaltered. The b is sometimes omitted, as in 
omitto 1 ; or changed into the first letter of the simple verb, as offero. 

10th. lie assumes d before d, also before a vowel, or h ; as, reddo, redamo, 
redeo, redliibeo. Pro, likewise, sometimes inserts d, as in prodeo. 

11th. Sub changes b into the initial consonant of the simple word, before 
c,/ g, m,p, r ; as, succedo, snffei'o, suggero. Submitto and swnmitto, submoveo 
and summoveo, are both used. 

12th. Trans is generally contracted into tra, before d,j, n ; as, trado, traji 
cio, trano ; and sometimes before / and m ; as, traluceo, trameo. Post be 
comes pos in postuli. Few if any changes take place in the other preposi 
tions. Other prefixes consist of verbs, as in calefacio, of caleo ; of adverbs, 
as in benefacio, from bene ; of participles and adjectives, as in mansuefacio 
from mausuetus, magnifico from magnus ; of substantives, as in significo, 
from signum ; of a preposition and noun, as in animadverto, from ad and 
animus, with verio. 



§ 81. LIST OF VERBS IRREGULAR IN THE PER- 
FECT AND SUPINE. 

[Owing to the irregularity of many verbs in the perfect and supine in the 
third conjugation, and of not a few in the other conjugations also, no rules 
that could be given would be of much practical utility. The only effectual 
way to attain accuracy and readiness in the conjugation of verbs, is, to com- 
mit the primary parts, or the conjugation accurately from the Dictionary. To 
be able to do this, as soon as possible, is of great importance to every scholar; 
and it is not a task of so great difficulty as might be supposed. The follow- 
ing list contains all the simple verbs lhat vary, in the perfect and supine, 



§ 81 PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 167 

from the general rule. By committing a portion of these to memory ever) 
day, to be recited with the ordinary lesson, and repeating this exercise in 
revivals till the whole is inwrought into the memory, much future labor wih 
be saved ; and this can be done in a few weeks, without at all interfering 
with the regular recitations. When the composition of a verb changes its 
form, it is noticed at the foot of the page, to which reference is made by 
numbers.] 

FIRST CONJUGATION. 

216.— Rule. Verbs of the first conjugation have dvi in the 
perfect, and atum in the supine ; as, 

Amo, amare, amavi, amatum, To love. 

Muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum, To change. 

Exceptions. 

The tenses of some verbs included in the lists of Exceptions are also 
found, especially in the earlier authors, conjugated according to th6 
General Rules. The form here given is that which is in common use 

Sup. 

datum, To give. 

statum, To stand. 

lotum, 



Pre? 

Do, 1 

Sto, 2 


Inf. 
dare, 
stare, 


Perf. 

dedi, 
steti, 


Lavo, 


j lavare, 
( lavere, 


!• lavi, 


Poto, 


potare, 


potavi, 


Juvo, 3 
Cubo, 4 


juvare, 
cubare, 


J uvi > . 
cubui, 



lautum, V To wash. 

lavatum, ) 

j potum, or ) Tq drint 

I potatum, J 

jiitum, To assist. 

cubitum, To lie. 



1 Circvrudo, " to surround ;" jpessundo, " to ruin ;" saiisdo. " to give surety ;" 
and venundo, " to sell," are conjugated like do. The other compounds belong 
to the third conjugation, and have didi in the perfect, and ditum in the 
supine ; as, obdo, abdere,abd'dum, abdidi, "to hide ;" reddo, reddidit rcdditum, 
"to give back." 

2 The compounds of sto have stiti in the perfect, and statum in the supine ; 
as, eonsto, constiti, constatvm. " to stand together." Some of the compounds 
have occasionally stitum in the supine ; as, praisto, prwstiti, p?'cestitum J or 
prcestatvm, " to stand before,'' " to excel." Adsto, " to stand by ;" insto, " to 
urge on," and resto, " to remain over and above." have no supine. Antesto, 
"to stand before;" circumsto, "to stand round;" intersto, "to stand be- 
tween ;" and supersto, " to stand over," h ve steti in the perfect ; and the first 
two, and probably the others also, want the supine. JJisto, "to be distant," 
and substo. " to stand under, : ' have neither perfect nor supine. 

s The supine juturn is doubtful, as the future participle isjwvaturus. Ad- 
juvo has aajutum only, and adjuturus. 

4 In the same manner, those compounds are conjugated which do not 
assume an m ; as, accubo, " to lie next to:" e.rci/bo, " to watch ;" incubo, " to lie 
upon ;" recubo, "to lie down again ;" seciibo, "to lie apart." The compounds 
which assume an m belong to the third conjugation, and have ui and Hum 
in the perfect and supine ; as, incumbo, incubui, incubitum, " to lie upon." 



168 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



§ 81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf 


Sup. 




Domo, 


domare, 


domui, 


domitum, 


To subdue. 


Sono, 5 


sonare, 


sonui, 


sonitum, 


To sound. 


T6no,6 


tonare, 


tonui, 


tonitnm, 


To thunder. 


Veto, 7 


vetare, 


vetui, 


vetitum, 


To forbid. 


Crepo, 8 


crepare, 


crepui, 


crepitum, 


To make a noise. 


Mico, 9 


micare, 


micui, 




To glitter. 


Fiico, 10 


fricare, 


fricui, 


frictum, 


To rub. 


Seco, 


secare, 


secui, 


sectum, 


To cut. 


Neco, 11 


necare, 


j necavi, or 
\ necui, 


>- necatum, 


To kill. 


Labo, 


labare, 


To fall, or faint 






Nexo, 
Plico, 12 


nexare, 
plicare, 






To bind. 
To fold. 











SECOND CONJUGATION. 



217. — Rule. Verbs of the Second Conjugation have ui m 
the perfect, and itum in the supine ; as, 



Moneo, 
Habeo, 1 



monere, 
habere, 



monm, 
habui, 

Exceptions. 



momtum, 
habitum, 



To advise. 
To have. 



Intransitives which have ui in the perfect, want the supine ; as, splendeo, 
splendui, " to shine ;" madeo, madui, " to be wet." 



5 The future participle is sonaturus. 

6 Intbno has intondtus in the perfect participle. 
r V eto has sometimes vetdvi in the perfect. 

8 Discrepo, " to differ," and increpn, " to chide," have sometimes dvi and 
dtum, as well as ui and Hum. Increpo seldom has the latter form. 

9 Emico, " to shine forth," has emicui, emicdtum ; arid dimico, "to fight," 
has dimicdvi (rarely dimicui), dimicdtum. 

!0 Some of the compounds of frico have the participles formed from the 
regular supine in dtum ; as, confricdtits, infriedtus. 

n Eneco, "to kill," and interneco, "to destroy," have also ui and ecium ; 
the participle of eneco is usually enectus. 

12 DupllcOy " to double ;" multipUco, " to multiply ;" replico, " to unfold ;" 
and supplicOy "to entreat humbly," have dvi and dtum. The other com- 
pounds of plico have either ui and Uum, or dvi and dtum; as, applico, 
" to apply,'' applicui, applicitum,, or applicdvi, applicdtum. ExpUco, in 
the sense of explain, has dvi and dtum; in the sense of unfold, it has ui 
and itum, 

1 The compounds of habeo change a into i ; as, adhibeo, adhibui, adhibitunu 
^ to admit f prohibeo, prohibiti^ prohibitum. " to forbid." 



§ 81 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



169 



The following Intransitives have ui and itum, according to the general 
rule : 





Caleo, to he hot. 


CoaleoJ to grow together. 




Careo, to want. 


Doleo, 


to grieve. 




Jaceo, to lie. 




Noceo, 


to hurt. 




Lateo,' 2 to lie hid. 


Pareo, 


to appear. 




Liceo, to be valued. 


Placeo 


, to please. 




Mereo, to deserve. 


Valeo, 


to be in health 


Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Ooceo, 


docere, 


docui, 


doctum, 


To teach. 


Teneo, 3 


tenere, 


tenui, 


tentum, 


To hold. 


Misceo, 


miscere, 


rniscui, 


<mirtnm,or ) To mix _ 
( nuxtum, \ 


Censeo, 4 


censere, 


censui, 


censum, 


To think, to judge, 


Torreo, 


torrere, 


torrui, 


tosturn, 


To roast. 


Sorbeo, 5 


sorbere, 


sorbni, 


sorptum, 


To sup. 


Tirneo, 


thnere, 


timui, 




To fear. 


Sileo, 

Arceo," 

Taceo, 7 


silere, 

arcere, 

tacere, 


silui, 
arcui, 
tacui, 




To he silent. 
To drive away. 
To he silent. 




tacitmn, 


Prandeo 


, 8 prandere, 


prandi, 


pransum, 


To dine. 


Video, 


videre, 


vldi, 


visum, 


To see. 


Sedeo, 9 


sedere, 


sedi, 


sessum, 


To sit. 


Strideo, 
Frendeo 


stridere, 
, frendere, 


stridi, 
frendi, 




To make a noise. 
To gnash the teeth. 


fressum, 


Mordeo, 1 


mordere, 


momordi, 


morsum, 


To bite. 


Pendeo, 


pendere, 


pependi, 


pensum, 


To hang. 



2 The compounds of lateo want the supine ; as, deliteo, delitui, "to lurk ;" 
perlateo, perlatui. " to lie hid." 

3 The compounds of teneo change e into i • as, contineo, continui, contentum, 
" to hold together." Attineo, " to hold ;" and pertineo, " to belong to," have 
no supine ; and abstineo, " to abstain from," seldom. 

4 Censeo has also census sum in the perfect, and censitum in the supine. 
Accenseo, "to reckon with," and percenseo, "to recount," want the supine ; 
and recenseo, "to review," has recemwn, and recensitum. 

s Absorbeo, " to sup up," and exsorbeo, "to sup out," have sometimes 
absorpsi, and exsorpsi in the perfect. The latter, with resorbeo, " to draw 
back," has no supine. 

s The compounds of arceo have Hum in the supine ; as, exerceo, exercui, 
exereitum, " to exercise." 

7 The compounds of taceo want the supine ; as, conticeo. conticui, " to keep 
ailence;" reticeo, reticui, "to remain silent," "to conceal." 

8 The participle pransus is used in the active sense of having dined. 

9 Desideo, " to sit idle;" dissideo, " to disagree ;" persideo, " to continue ;" 
prasideo, "to sit before ;" resideo, "to sit down," "to rest;" and subsideo, 
" to subside," want the supine. 

10 The compounds of mordeo, pendeo, spondeo, and tondeo, do not double 
the first syllable of the perfect. See 215-2. Impendeo, " to overhang," has 
no perfect or supine. 

8 






170 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 


Spondeo, 


spondere, 


spopondi, 


sponsum, 


Tondeo, 


tondere, 


tojondi, 


ton sum, 


Moveo, 11 


movere, 


mdvi, 


motum, 


Foveo, 


fovere, 


fovi, 


fotum, 


Voveo, 


vovere, 


vovi, 


votum, 


Faveo, 


favere, 


favi, 


fautum, 


Caveo, 


cavere, 


cavi, 


cautum, 


Paveo, 


pavere, 


pavi, 






Ferveo, 12 
Conniveo, 
Deleo, 


fervere, 


ferbui, . 
conmvi, or 
delevi, 




. . 


delere, 


deletum, 


Compleo, 13 complere, 


complevi, 


completum, 


Fleo, 


fiere, 


flevi, 


fletum, 


JSTeo 


nere, 


nevi, 


netum, 


Vieo, 


viere, 


vievi, 


yietum, 


Cieo, 14 


ciere, 


(clvi,) 


citum, 


Oleo, 15 


olere, 


olui, 


(olitum,) 


Suadeo, 


suadere, 


suasi, 


suasum, 


Rideo, 


ridere, 


risi, 


risum, 


Maneo, 


manere, 


mansi, 


mansum, 


Haereo, 


haerere, 


haesi, 


haesum, 


Ardeo, 


ardere. 


arsi, 


arsum, 


Tergeo, 


tergere, 


tersi, 


tersum, 


Muleeo, 


muleere, 


mulsi, 


mulsum, 


Hulgeo, 


mulgere, 


mulsi, 


( mulsum, or 
\ muletum, 


Jubeo, 


jubere, 


jussi, 


jussum, 


Indulgeo, 


indulgere, 


indulsi, 


indultum, 


Torqueo, 


torquere, 


torsi, 


tortum, 


Augeo, 


augere, 


auxi, 


auetum, 


Urgeo, 


urgere, 


ursi, 






Fulgeo, 


fulgere, 


fulsi, 






Turgeo, 


turgere, 


tursi, 






Algeo, 


algere, 


alsi, 





To promise. 

To clip. 

To move. 

To cherish. 

To vow. 

To favor. 

To beware of. 

To be afraid. 

To boil. 

To wink. 

To destroy. 

To fill. 

To weep. 

To spin. 

To hoop a vessel. 

To stir up. 

To smell. 

To advise. 

To laugh. 

To stay. 

To stick. 

To burn. 

To wipe. 

To stroke. 

To milk. 

To order. 
To indulge. 
To twist. 
To increase. 
To press. 
To shine. 
To swell. 
To be cold. 



11 Verbs in veo undergo a contraction in the supine. Intransitive verbs 
in mo want the supine ; as, paveo, pavi, " to be afraid." - 

12 Fervo,ferm, another form of this verb belonging to the third conjuga- 
tion, is used in a few persons, and in the present infinitive. 

*3 The other compounds of the obsolete verb pleo are conjugated in the 
same way ; as, expleo, impleo, repleo, suppleo. 

1 4 Clvi is the perfect of do of the fourth conjugation, having citum or 
citum in the supine. The compounds, in the sense of calling, are generally 
conjugated according to this form ; as, excio, excitum. 

15 The compounds of oleo, which retain the sense of the simple verb, have 
ui and Hum; as, oboleo, obolui, obolUum, u to smell strongly." The com- 
pounds which adopt a different signification, have evi and etum / as, exbleo, 
exolevi, exoletum, "to fade;" olsoleo, obsolevi, obsoUtum, "to grow out of 
use;" inoleo, inolevi, inoletum, or inolltum, " to come into use." Aboleo, " to 
abolish," has abolevi, abolitum ; and ddoleo, t.o grow up," "to burn " (as a 
sacrifice). >i4oUvi, aaultum. 



§ 81 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



171 



Pres. Inf. Perf. ^ U P- 

Lugeo, lugere, luxi, To mount. 

Luceo, lucere, luxi, To shine. 

Frigeo, frigere, frixi, To be cold 

The following verbs want both perfect and si;pi*ie : 



Aveo. to desire. 
Denseo, to grow thick. 
Flaveo, to be yellow. 
Glabreo, to be smooth. 
Hebeo, to be blunt. 
Lacteo, to grow milky. 



Liveo, to be black and blue. 
Mcereo, to be sorrowful. 
Renideo, to shine. 
Polleo, to be powerful 
Scateo, to flow out. 



218.— THIRD CONJUGATION. 

Verbs of the Third Conjugation form the perfect and supine 
variously. 

10. 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf 


Facio, 1 


facere, 


feci, 


Jacio, 2 


jacere, 


jeci, 


Aspicio, 3 


aspicere, 


aspexi, 


Allicio, 


allicere, 


allexi, 


Fodio, 


f ode re, 


fodi, 


Fugio, 


fugere, 


fugi, 


Capio, 4 


capere, 


cepi, 


Rapio, 


rapere, 


rapui, 


Sapio, 


sapere, 


sapui, 


Cupio, 


cupere, 


cupivi, 


Pario, 5 


parere, 


peperi, 



Sup. 
factum, 
j actum, 
aspectum, 
allectum, 
fossum, 
fugitum, 
captum, 
raptum, 



To do, to make. 

To throw. 

To behold. 

To allure. 

To dig. 

Tofly. 

To take. 

To seize. 

To taste, to be wise. 

To desire. 



j partum, or > T bri fortk 
( paritum, ) * J 



i Facio, when compounded with a preposition, changes a into ij as, affcio, 
a feci, affectum, " to affect." In the other compounds^ the a is retained. A 
few compounds end in fico and flcor, and belong to the first conjugation : 
as, amplifico, "to enlarge ;" sacrifico, " to sacrifice ;" gratificor, "to gratify ;" 
and ludificor, "to mock." 

2 The compounds of jacio change a into i; as, abjicio, abjeci, dbjectum. 

3 The compounds of the obsolete verbs specio and lacio have exi and ectum ; 
except elicio, "to draw out," which has elicui and elicitum. 

4 The compounds of capio, rapio, and sapio, change a into i; as, accipio, 
accept, acceptum, "to receive i;" abripio, abripui, abreptum, " to carry off;" 
consipio, consipui, "to be in one's senses." 

5 The compounds of pario have per ui and pertum, and belong to the fourth 
conjugation; as, aperio, aperire, aperui, apertum, " to open." So operio, " to 
shut," "to cover." But comperio (which also has a deponent form in the 
present indicative and infinitive, camper ior, comperlri), "to know a thing 
for certain," has comperi, campertum ; and reperio, "to find," has reperi, 
repertum. 



172 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



81 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Step. 




Quatio, 6 


quatere, 


(quassi), 


quassum, 
UO. 


To shake. 


Acuo, 


acuere, 


acui, 


acutum, 


To sharpen. 


Arguo, 


arguere, 


argui, 


argutum, 


To show, to prove. 


Batuo, 


batuere, 


batui, 


batutum, 


To beat. 


Exuo, 


exuere, 


exui, 


exutum, 


To put off clothes 


Imbuo, 


imbuere, 


imbui, 


imbutum, 


To moisten, to wet 


Induo, 


induere, 


indui, 


indutum, 


To put on clothes. 


Minuo, 


minuere, 


minui, 


minutum, 


To lessen. 


Spuo, 7 


spuere, 


spui, 


sputum, 


To spit. 


Statuo, 


statuere, 


statui, 


statutum, 


To set, to place. 


Sternuo, 


sternuere, 


sternui, 


sternutum, 


To sneeze. 


Suo, 


suere, 


sui, 


sutum, 


To sew, to stitch. 


Tribuo, 


tribuere, 


tribui, 


tributum, 


To give, to divide. 


Fluo, 


fluere, 


fluxi, 


fluxum, 


To flow. 


Struo, 


struere, 


struxi, 


structum, 


To build. 


Luo, 8 


luere, 


lui, 


luitum, 


To pay, }o wash. 
To rush, to fall 


Ruo, 9 


ruere, 


rui, 


ruitum, 


Metuo, 
Pluo, 


metuere, 
pluere, 


metui, 
plui, 




To fear. 
To rain. 






Congruo, 


congruere, 


coDgrui, 




To agree. 




Ingruo, 


ingruere, 


ingrui, 




To assail. 




Annuo, 10 


annuere, 


y 




To assent. ' 


tt.i-LLlu.lj 


BO. 


Bibo, 


bibere, 


bibi, 


bibitum, 


To drink. 


Scabo, 

Lambo, 

Scribo, 


scabere, 
lambere, 
scribere, 


scabi. 
Iambi, 
scripsi, 




To scratch. 
To lick. 
To write. 




scriptum, 


Nubo, 11 


nubere, 


nupsi, 


nuptum, 


To veil, to be married 


Glubo, 


glubere, 






To strip, to flay. 










CO. 




Dico, 


dicere, 


dixi, 


dictum, 


To say. 


Duco, 


ducere, 


duxi, 


ductum, 


To, lead. 



<5 The compouuds of quatio take the form cutio, and have cussi and cussum ; 
as, concutio, kk to shake violently," concussi, concussum. 

7 Respuo, " to spit out," "to reject," has no supine. 

8 The compounds of luo have utum in the supine; as, abluo, ablui, ablutu?n y 
"to wash away," u to purify." 

9 The compounds of ruo have utum in the supine ; as, diruo, dirui, dirutum, 
"to overthrow." Corruo, " to fall together," and irruo, " to rush in furiously," 
have no supine. 

10 The other compounds of the obsolete nuo, as abnuo, " to refuse ;" inmw, 
"to nod with the head;" and renuo 1 "to deny," likewise want the supine. 
Abnuiturus, future participle from abnuo, is found. 

11 Nupta sum, another form of the perfect, is sometimes used instead of 
nupsi. 



§81 


PERFECTS 


AND SUPINES. 173 


Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Yinco, 


vincere, 


vici, 


victum, 


To jvercowe. 


Parco, 12 


parcere, 


( peperci, or j parsum, or 
j parsi, ( parcitum, 


y To spare. 


Ico, 


icere, 


ici, 


ictum, 
SCO. 


To strike. 


Cresco, 


crescere, 


crevi, 


cretum, 


To grow. 


Nosco, 13 


noscere, 


novi, 


notum, 


To know. 


Quiesco, 


quiescere, 


, quievi, 


quietum, 


To rest. 


Scisco, 


sciscere, 


sclvi, 


scituni, 


To ordain. 


Suesco, 


suescere, 


suevi, 


suetum, 


To be accustomed. 


Pasco, 14 


pascere, 


pavi. 


pastum, 


To feed. 


Disco, 


discere, 


didici, 




To learn. 


Posco, 


poscere, 


poposci, 




To demand. 




Glisco, 15 


gliscere, 






To glitter, to grow. 












DO. 




Accendo, 


accendere 


, accendi, 


accensum, 


To kindle. 


Cudo, 


cudere, 


cudi, 


cusum, 


To forge. 


Defendo, 


defendere 


, defendi, 


defensum, 


To defend. 


Edo, 16 


edere, 


edi, 


esum, 


To eat. 


Mando, 


mandere, 


mandi, 


mansum, 


To chew. 


Prehendo, 


prehendere, prehendi, 


prehensum, 


To take hold of. 


Scando, 


scandere, 


scandi, 


scansum, 


To climb. 


Divido, 


dividere, 


divisi, 


di visum, 


To divide. 


Rado, 


radere, 


rasi, 


rasum, 


To shave. 


Claudo, 17 


claudere, 


clausi, 


clausum, 


To close. 


Plaudo, 18 


plaudere, 


plausi, 


plausum, 


To applaud. 


Ludo, 


ludere, 


lusi, 


lusum, 


To play. 


Trudo, 


trudere, 


trusi, 


tmsum, 


To thrust. 


Laado, 19 


lsedere, 


laesi, 


laesum, 


To hurt. 



12 The forms par si aud parcitum ?re seldom used. 

13 The future participle is nosciturus, from noscitum, the old form of the 
supine. Agnosco, " to own,'' has agnovi, agnitum; and cognosco, " to know," 
has cognovi, cognitum. 

14 Compesco, "to feed together, 7 ' "to restrain ;" and dispesco, "to separate," 
have compescui, and dispescui, without the supine. 

15 Fatisco, "to be weary," likewise wants both perfect and supine ; and 
also all inceptive verbs, unless when they adopt the tenses of their primitives ; 
as, ardesco, " to grow hot," arsi, arsum. 227, Obs. 4. 

16 All the compounds of edo are conjugated in the same manner, except 
comedo, "to eat up," which has comesum, or comestum, in the supine. See 
§ 83, 9. 

17 The compounds of claudo change au into u ; as, conclicdo, conclusi, con- 
clusum, " to conclude." Circumclaudo is found in Caesar. 

is The compounds of plaudo, except ap-plaudo and circum-plaudo, change 
au into o ; as, explodo, explbsi, explosum, " to reject." 

19 The compounds of Icedo change ce into i ; as, allldo, alllsi^ alllsum, " tc 
dash against," 



174 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. 

Rodo, 

Vado 20 


Inf. 

rodere, 
vadere, 
cedere, 


Per/. 

rosi, 


Sup. 
rosum, 


To gn&w. 
Togo. 
To yield. 


Cedo,' 


cessi, 


cessum, 


Pando, 


pandere, 


pandi, 


j passum, or 
( pansum, 


y To open. 

To pour forth. 
To cut. 
To cleave. 


Fundo, 
Sciudo, 
Findo, 


fundere, 
scindere, 
findere, 


fudi, 
scidi, 
fidi, 


fusum, 

scissum, 

fissum, 


Tundo, 21 


tundere, 


tutiidi, 


( tunsum, or 
( tusum, 

casum, 

caesum, 


1 To beat. 

To fall. 

To cut, to kill. 


Cado, 22 
Caado, 23 


cadere, 
caedere, 


cecidi, 
cecidi, 


Tendo, 24 


tendere, 


tetendi, 


( tensum, or ) m ' » 
n , ' }- To stretch. 
1 tenturn, J 

pensum, To hang. 

creditum. To believe. 

venditum, To sell. 

absconditum, To hide. 


Pendo, 

Credo, 25 

Vendo, 

Abscondo 

Strldo 


pendere, pependi, 
credere, credidi, 
vendere, vendidi, 
abscondere, abscond!, 
stridere, stridi, 
rudere, rtidi, 

CI nPTP oTHt 


Rudo, 




To bray (as an ass). 
To sink down. 


Sido, 2 6 




OXVJ.C/X c« 




GO. 


Cingo, 
Fligo* 

Jungo, 
Lingo, 
Mungo, 
Plango, 


cingere, 
fligere, 
jungere, 
lingere, 
. mungere, 
plangere, 


cinxi, 

flixi, 

junxi, 

linxi, 

munxi, 

planxi, 


cinctum, 

flictum, 

junctum, 

linctum, 

munctum, 

planctum, 


To surround. 

To dash. 

To join. 

To lick 

To wipe the nose. 

To beat. 



20 The compounds of vado have the perfect and supine ; as, cvdclo, evdsi, 
tvdsum, "to escape." 

2i The compounds of tundo have tudi and tusum ; as, contundo. " to bruise," 
contudh, contusum. See 215, Rule 2. Some of the compounds have also a 
perfect participle formed from tunsum; as, obtunsus and retunsuSj from ob- 
iundo and retundo. 

22 The compounds of cado want the supine ; as, accido, accidi, u to happen ;" 
except incido, incidh, incdsum, " to fall in ;" occido, occidi, occdsum, u to fall 
down ;" and recido, recidh, recdsum, "to fall back." 

23 The compounds of ccedo change ai into i; as, accldo, accldi, acclswn, "to 
cut about;" decido, decldi, declsum, " to cut off." 

24 The compounds of tendo have generally tentnm in the supine, except 
extendo, "to stretch out," and ostendo, "to show," which have also tension; 
the latter, almost always. 

25 The other compounds of do which belonsr to the third conjugation have 
also didi, and ditum ; as, condo, condhli, conditum, "" to build." Abscondo 
has sometimes abscondidi. See page 167, Note 1. 

2^ The compounds of s J do adopt the perfect and supine of sedeo ; as, con~ 
ndo. ccnsedi, consessum, "to sit down." 

21 The compounds offilgo are conjugated in the same way, except prqfligo, 
"to dash down," which is a regular verb of the first conjugation. 



§81 



PEEFECTS AND SUPINES. 



175 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Perf. 


Sup. 


Rego, 28 


regere, 


rexi, 


rectum, 


Stinguo,- 9 


stinguere, 


stinxi, 


stinctum, 


Sugo, 


sugere, 


suxi, 


suctum, 


Tego, 


tegere, 


texi, 


tectum, 


Tinguo, 


tinguere, 


tinxi, 


tinctum, 


Unguo, 


unguere, 


unxi, 


unctum, 


Surgo, 


surgere, 


surrexi, 


surrectum, 


Pergo, 


pergere, 


perrexi, 


perrectum, 


Stringo, 


stringere, 


strinxi, 


strictum, 


Fingo, 


fingere, 


finxi, 


fictum, 


Pingo, 


pingere, 


pinxi, 


pictum, 


Frango, 30 


frangere, 


fregi, 


fractum, 


Ago, 31 


agere, 


egi, 


actum, 


Tango, 


tangere, 


tetigi, 


tactum, 


Lego, 3 ' 2 


legere. 


legi, 


lectum, 


Pungo, 33 


pungere, 


pupugi, 


punctum, 


Pango, 34 


pangere, 


panxi, 


pactum, 


Spargo, 35 


spargere, 


sparsi, 


sparsum, 


Mergo, 


niergere, 


mersi, 


mersum, 


Tergo, 


tergere, 


tersi, 


tersum, 


Figo, 


figere, 


fixi, 


fixum, 


Frigo, 
Vergo, 


frigere, 
vergere, 


frixi, 


j frixum, or 
\ frictum, 







To rule. 

To dash out. 

To suck. 

To cover. 

To dip. 

To anoint. 

To rise. 

To go forward. 

To bind. 

To feign. 

To paint. 

To break. 

To do, to drive. 

To touch. 

To gather, to read. 

To prick. 

To drive in. 

To spread. 

To dip, to plunge. 

To wipe. 

To fix. 

\ To fry. 

To lie toward. 



2 8 The compounds of r ego change e into i ; as, dirigo, direxi, directum, " tc 
direct;" corrigo, correxi, correctum, "to correct." 

29 Stinguo, tinguo, and unguo, ■ are also written stingo, tingo, ungo. 

3 The compounds of. frango and tango change a into i ; as, confringo, con- 
fregi, confr actum, "to break to pieces ;" attingo, attigi, attactum, " to touch 
gently." 

si Circumago, "to drive round;" per ago, "to finish ;" and coago (con- 
tracted cogo), " to collect," retain the a ; the other compounds change a into 
i; as, abigo, abegi, abactum, "to drive away." Dego (for deago), " to live," 
"to dwell;" prodigo, "to lavish" or "squander;" and satago, "to be busy," 
want the supine. Ambigo, " to doubt," has neither perfect nor supine. 

32 Lego, when compounded with ad, per, prce, re, and sub, retains the e; 
as, allege, "to choose." The other compounds change e into i; as, colllgo, 
"to collect." Diligo, "to love;" intelligo, "to understand," and negligo, 
''to neglect," have exi and ectum. Jfegligo has sometimes neglegi in the 
perfect. 

33 The compounds of pungo have punxi in the perfect; as, compungo, "to 
sting," compunxi, compunctum. Repungo, " to prick again," has repupiigi 
and repunxi. 

34 Pango, in the sense of "to bargain," has pepigi ; the present is- rarely 
used in this meaning ; but instead of it, paciscor is commonly employed. 
The compounds which change a into i have pegi and pactum * as, compingo, 
'to fasten together," compegi, compactum. Oppango, "to fasten to," has 

ilso pegi and pactum. Of the other compounds which retain a, the perfect 
and supine are not found. 

35 The compounds of spargo change a into e ; as, aspergo, aspen 
eum, " to besprinkle." 



176 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



§81 



Pres. Inf. Per/. 



Sup. 



Clango, 

Ningo, 

Ango, 


clangere, 

ningere, 

angere, 


clanxi, 

ninxi, 

anxi, 




To sound a trumpet 




U. U O ILUUJ. 

To vex. 










HO. 




Traho, 
Veho, 
Mejo, 36 


trahere, 
vehere, 
mejere, 


traxi,» 

yexi, 

minxi, 


tractum, 
yectum, 
mictum, 

LO. 


To draw. 
To carry. 
To make water. 


Colo, 37 
Consulo, 

Alo, 


colere, 
cpnsulere, 

alere, 


colui, 
consului, 

alui, 


cultum, 

consultun? . 
( alitum, o/ 
( altum, 

molitusn; 


To till, to inhabi 1 
To consult. 

y To nourish. 

To grind. 

Id PTPPI 


Molo, 

Antecello, 5 

Pello, 

Fallot 

Velio, 40 

Sallo, 

Psailo, 

Tollo, 41 


molere, molui, 
58 antecellere, antecellui, 
pellere, pepuli, 
fall ere, fefelli, 
yellere, velli, or v 
sallere, salli, 
psallere, psalli, 
toilere, sustiili, 


pulsum, 

falsum, 

ulsi, vulsum, 

salsum, 


To drive away. 

To deceive, 

To pull. 

To salt. 

To play on an vnstm 

T<> lift up. [meni 


sublatmx, 








MO. 




Premo, 

Gemo, 

Vomo, 

Tremo, 

Demo, 

Promo, 

Sumo, 

Como, 

Eino, 42 


fremere, 

gemere, 

vomere, 

tremere, 

demere, 

promere 

sumere, 

comere, 

emere, 


fremui,. 

gemui, 

yomui, 

tremui, 

dempsi, 

prompsi, 

sumpsi, 

compsi, 

emi, 


fremitum, 
gemitumf 
yomitum, 


To rage, to roar. 
To groan. 
To vomit. 
To tremble. 
To take away, 
To bring out. 
To take up. 
To deck, to dress. 
To buy. 


demptum, 

promptum, 

sumptum, 

comptum, 

emptum, 



36 Mingo is also used as the present of minxi. 

37 Colo, when compounded with ob, changes o into %■; as, occido, "to hide." 
Accblo, "to dwell near," and circumcolo, "to dwell round," have no supine. 

38 The other compounds of the obsolete cello likewise want the supine ; 
except per cello, perculi, perculsum, " to strike," " to astonish." Tieeello, like- 
wise, wants the perfect. 

39 Eefello, refelli, "to confute," wants the supine. 

40 Velio, when compounded with de, di, or per, has usually velli in the per- 
fect. The other compounds take either form indifferently. 

41 Attollo and extollo, u to raise up," have no perfect or supine of their own ; 
but those ofaffero and effero, which agree with them in meaning, are some- 
times assigned to them. 

42 Demo, promo, and sumo, are compounds of emo. The other compounds 
change e into i, and are conjugated like the simple verb ; as, adimo, ademi, 
ademptum, " to take away." 



§81 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



177 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Premo, 43 


preniere, 


pressi, 


pressum, 


To press. 






NO. 




Pono, 


ponere, 


posui, 


positum, 


To place. 


Gigno, 


gignere, 


genui, 


genitum, 


To beget. 


Cano, 44 


canere, 


cecini, 


cantum, 


To sing. 


Temno, 45 
Sperno, 


temnere, 
spernere, 






To despise. 
To disdain. 


sprevi, 


spretum, 


Sterno, 46 


sternere, 


stravi, 


stratum, 


To lay flat. 


Sino, 


sinere, 


slvi, or sii, 


situm, 


To permit. 


Lino, 


linere, 


livi, or levi, 


litum, 


To anoint. 


Cerno, 47 


cernere, 


crevi, 

PO, 


cretum, 
QUO. 


To see, to decree. 


Carpo, 48 


carpere, 


carpsi, 


carptum, 


To pluck. 


Clepo, 


clepere, 


clepsi, 


cleptum, 


To steal. 


Repo, 


repere, 


repsi, 


reptum, 


To creep. 


Scalpo, 


scalpere, 


scalpsi, 


scalptum, 


To engrave. 


Sculpo, 


scuj-pere, 


sculpsi, 


sculptum, 


To carve. 


Serpo, 


serpere, 


serpsi, 


serptum, 


To creep. 


Strepo, 


strepere, 


strepui, 


strepitum, 


To make a noise. 


Rurnpo, 


rumpere, 


rupi, 


ruptum, 


To break. 


Coquo, 


coquere, 


coxi, 


coctum, 


To boil. 


Linquo, 49 


linquere, 


liqui, 




To leave. 








: 


RO. 




Qusero, 50 


quserere, 


quaeslvi, 


qusesltum, 


To seek. ' 


Tero, 


terere, 


trivi, 


tritum, 


To wear. 


Yerro, 


verrere, 


verri, 


versum, 


To sweep. 


Uro, 


urere, 


ussi, 


ustum, 


To burn. 



43 The compounds of premo change e into i ; as, comprlmo, compressi, cim~ 
pressum, " to press together." 

44 The compounds of cano have cinui and centum ; as, concino, concinui. 
concentum, "to sing in concert." Of accino, "to sing to," and intercino, "tc 
sing between or during," no perfect or supine is found. 

45 Contemno, " to despise," has contempsi, contemptum. 

46 Consterno and externo, when they signify " to alarm," are regular verbs 
of the first conjugation. The other compounds are conjugated like sterno; 
as, insterno, instrdvi, instratum, " to spread upon." 

47 The perfect crevi is used in the sense of " to declare one's self heir," or 
" enter on an inheritance." In the sense of " seeing," cerno has properly 
neither perfect nor supine. 

43 The compounds of carpo change a into e\ as, discerpo, discerpsi, discerp- 
turn, " to tear in pieces." 

49 The compounds of 'linquo have lictum in the supine : as, relinquo, rellqui, 
relictum, "to forsake ;" so delinquo, " to fail." 

50 The compounds of queer o change oe. into i ; as, acquiro, acquisivi, ac 
turn, "to acquire." 

8* 



178 



PERFECTS AND SUPINES. 



SI 



Pres. 


Inf. 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Curro, 51 


currere, 


cucurri, 


cursum, 


To run. 


Gero, 


gerere, 


gessi, 


gestum, 


To carry. 


Furo, 52 
Sero, 53 


furere, 

serere, 






To be mad. 
To son 


sevi, 


satum, 






SO. 




Arcesso, 


arcessere, 


arcessivi, 


arcessitum, 


To call, or send for. 


Capesso, 


capessere 


, capessivi, 


capessitum, 


To take. 


Facesso, 


facessere, 


facessivi, 


facessltum, 


To do, go away. 


Lacesso, 


lacessere, 


lacessivi, 


lacessitum, 


To provoke. 


Viso, 


visere, 


visi, 




To go to visit. 




Tpr>pca/-> 


lnpp^^prP 1 


incessi, 
depsui, 




To attack. 
To knead. 


Depso, 


depsere, 


depstum, 


Pinso, 


pinsere, 


j pinsui, or 
( pinsi, 


C pinsum, 
< pistum, or 
( pinsitum, 


y To bake. 






TO. 




Flecto, 


flectere, 


flexi, 


flexum, 


To bend 


Plecto, 


plectere, 


plexi & plexui, plexum, 


To plait. 


Necto, 


neetere, 


nexi & nexui, 


nexum, 


To tie, or knit. 


Pecto, 


pectere, 


pexi <fc pexui, 


pexum, 


To dress, or comb. 


Meto, 


metere, 


raessui, 


messum, 


To reap. 


Peto, 


petere, 


petivi, 


petitum, 


To seek. 


Mitto, 


rnittere, 


misi, 


missum, 


To send. 


Verto, 54 


vert ere, 


verti, 


versum, 


To turn. 


Sterto, 
Sisto, 55 


stertere, 
sistere, 


stertui, 

stiti, 




To snore. 
To stop. 


statum, 






vo, 


XO. 




Vivo, 


vivere, 


vixi, 


victum, 


To live. , 


Solvo, 


solvere, 


solvi, 


solutum, 


To loose. 



51 Curro, when compounded with circum, re, sub, and trans, seldom takes 
the reduplication. The other compounds sometimes take the reduplication, 
and sometimes not. 

5-2 See 222-4. 

53 The compounds of se?'0 which retain the sense of " planting:" and " sow- 
ing," have sevi and sltiim; as consero, consevi, consltum, " to plant together." 
Those winch adopt a different signification have serui and sertum ; as, assero, 
asserui, assertion, "to claim." The latter class of compounds properly be- 
longs to the old verb sero, "to knit," " to plait." 

54 The compounds of verto are conjugated in the same manner, except re- 
verter, "to return," which is often used as a deponent verb; and dive/tor, 
"to tarn aside," and pravertor, "to outrun," winch are likewise deponent, 
but want the perfect participle. 

55 Sisto, "to stand still" (an intransitive verb), has neither perfect nor 
supine. The compounds have stiti and stitum ; as, assisto, astlti, astltum* 
"to stand by." But these are seldom found in the supine. 



§81 



PEEFECTS AND SUPINES. 



179 



Pres. Inf. P e rf. Sup. 

Volvo, volvere, volvi, volQtum, To roll. 

Texo, texere, texui, textum, To weave. 

219.— FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

f Rule. — Verbs of the fourth conjugation have Ivi in the 
perfect, and Hum in the supine ; as, 



Pres. 


W- 


Per/. 


Sup. 




Audio, 


audire, 


audlvi, 


auditum, 


To hear. 


Munio, 


munlre, 


munivi, 


munltum, 


To fortify. 






Exceptions. 




Singultio, 

Sepelio, 

Yenio, 


singultire, singultivi, 
sepelire, sepelivi, 
venire, veni, 


singnltum, 
sepultum, 
ventum, 


To sob. 
To bury. 
To come. 


Veneo ^ 


venire, 
salire, 


venii, 
salui, or sali 




To be sold 


Salio/ 


i, saltum, 


To leap. 


Amicio, 


amicire, 


j amicui, or 
( amixi, 
vinxi, 


>■ amictum, 
vinctum, 


To clothe. 


Vincio, 


vincire, 


To tie. 


Sancio, 


sancire, 


j sanxi, or 
{ sancivi, 


) sanctum, or 
) sancitum, 


y To ratify. 


Cambio, 
Sepio, 


cambire, 
sepire, 


campsi, 
sepsi, 


campsum, 
septum, 


To change money. 
To enclose. 


Haurio, 


haurire, 


hausi, 


( haustum, or 
( hausum, 
sensum, 


[■ To draw out. 

To feel. 


Sentio, 


sentire, 


sensi, 


Raucio, 


rauclre, 


rausi, 


rausum, 


To be hoarse. 


Sarcio, 
Fareio, 3 


sarcire, 
farcire, 


sarsi, 
farsi, 


sartum, 
fartum, 


To mend, or repai: 
To cram. 


Fulcio, 
Ferio, 


fulcire, 
ferire, 


falsi, 


fultum, 


To prop. 
To strike. 



The following verbs have the perfect formed regularly, but 
want the supine : 



Csecutio, to be dim-sighted. 
Dementio, to be mad. 
Ferocio, to be fierce. 
Glocio, to cluck as a hen. 



Gestio, to show one's joy by the gestures 

of the body. 
Ineptio, to play the fool. 



(For desiderative verbs which belong to this conjugation, see 227-3.) 

1 Veneo is a compound of venum and the irregular verb eo 9 the tens<^ of 
which it follows in its inflection. 221-3. 

2 The compounds of salio have generally silui, sometimes silii, or xitivi, 
in the perfect, and sultum in the supine ; as, trans Mo, transikri, transitu, 
or transilim, transultum, " to leap over." Absullum, circumsultum, and^P/'O- 
sultum, are scarcely used. 

3 The compounds of fareio change a into e ; as, refer cio, refer si, rqfertum, 
" to fill up." 



ISO 



DEPONENT PARTICIPLES. 



§ 82 



82. LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS IRREGULAR 
THE PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 



IN 



220. — Rule. Deponent and common verbs form the per 
feet participle in the same manner as if the active voice 
existed. 207, Obs. 3. 

To this rule, there are no exceptions in the first conjugation. 
EXCEPTIONS IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 



Reor, 


reri, 


ratus, 


To think. 


Misereor, 1 


misereri, 


misertus, 


To pity. 


Fateor, 2 


fateri, 


fassus, 


To co?ifess 


Medeor, 


mederi, 




To heal 




JL \J iVCU/li, 


EXCEPTIONS IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 


Labor, 


labi, 


lapsus, 


To slide. 


Ulciseor, 


ulcisci, 


illtns, 


To revenge. 


Utor, 


titi, 


usus, 


To use. 


Loquor, 3 


loqui, 


loquutus (locutus) 


, To speak. 


Sequor, 


sequi, 


sequQtus (secutusj 


1, To follow. 


Queror, 


queri, 


questus, . 


To complain. 


Nltor, 4 


niti, 


nisus, or nixus, 


To strive. 


Paciseor, 


pacisci, 


pactus, 


To bargain. 


Gradior, 


gradi, 


gressus, 


To go. 


Proficiseor, 


proficisei, 


profectus, 


To go a journey. 


Nanciscor, 


nancisci, 


nactus, 


To obtain. 


Patior, 


pati, 


passus, 


To suffer. 


Apiscor, 5 


apisci, 


aptus, 


To get: 


Comminiscor, 


comminisci, 


commentus, 


To devise. 


Fruor, 


frui, _ 


frultus, or fructus, 


To enjoy. 


Obliviscor, 


obiivisci, 


oblltus, 


To forget. 


Expergiscor, 


expergisci, 


experrectus, 


To awake. 


Morior, 6 . 


m.5ri, 


mortuus, 


To die. 



1 Misereor has also miserUus in the perfect participle. 

2 The compounds of fateor change a into i, and have fessus; as, confiteor, 
confessus, " to confess." Diffiteor, " to deny," wants the perfect participle. 

3 Loquor and sequor have likewise locutus and secutus in the perfect parti- 
ciple. 

4 Jffltor, when compounded with con, in, ob, re, sub, has nixus oftener than 
nisus. Adnitor, "to lean to," has either, indifferently. Enltor, in the sense 
of " to bring forth," generally takes enixa in the participle. 

5 Adipiscor and indipiscor, "to obtain," have adeptus and indeptus. 

6 Morior seems to have originally belonged to the fourth con pi oration. The 
infinitive morlri occurs in Plautus and Ovid ; and morimvr, with the penult 
lonu 1 , is also found.. The imperative is morere. This verb, with nascor and 
orior, has -iturus in the future participle ; as, moriturus, nasciturt/s, ori- 
tur vs. 



§ 83 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



181 



Nascor, 7 
Orior, 8 



nasci, 

oiii'i. 



natus, 
ortus, 



To be born. 
To rise. 



The following verbs want the perfect participle : 



Defetiscor, -i, to be weary. 
Irascor, -i, to be angry. 
Liquor, -i, to melt. 



Reminiscor, -i, to remember. 
Eingor, -i, to grin like a dog. 
Vescor, -i, to feed. 



Metior, 
Ordior, 



Experior, 
Opperior, 



EXCEPTIONS W THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

To measure. 
To begin. 



metiri, 
ordiri, 



expenn, 
oppeiiri, 



mensus, 
orsus, 
expertus, 
opertus, 



To try. 
To wait. 



§ 83. IRREGULAR VERBS. 

221. — Irregular Verbs are those in wdiich some of "the 
secondary parts are not formed from the primary, according 
to the rules for regular verbs. 

The irregular verbs are six ; namely, sum; eo, queo, volo, 
fero, and fio. Their compounds are irregular, also. 

Sum has been inflected already, 186. After the same man- 
ner are inflected its compounds, ad-, ab-, de-, inter-, ob-, prce-, 
sub-, super-sum; as, adsum, adesse, adfui, <fec. Insum wants the 
perfect. 

1. Prosum, "to do good,'' inserts d where the simple verb 
begins with e. It is inflected thus : 

Prosum, prodesse, profui, To do good. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Prosum, prodes, prodest;prosiimus, prodestis, prosunt. 
Imp. Prod-eram, -eras, -erat ; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

' -erunt,or 
-ere. 



Per. Profu-i, -isti, 


-it; 


-imus, 


Plu. Profu-eram.-eras, 


-erat ; 


-eramus, 


Fut. Prod-ero, -eris, 


-erit ; 


-erimus, 


F.-P. Profu-ero, -eris, 


-erit : 


-erimus, 



-istis 






-eratis, -erant. 
-eritis, -erunt. 
-eritis. -erint. 



7 Kascor is passive in signification. It has not the active voice. 

8 Orior has orirer, and always oriretur in the imperfect subjunctive, ac- 
cording to the fourth conjugation. Likewise in the compounds adorirUur, 
exorvr'etur ; and not adorer ei'ur, exoreretar. The present follows the third, 
though oriris and oritur, with the penult long, are also found. 



182 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



§ 83 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Pro-sim, -sis, -sit; -simus, 

Imp. Prod-essem, -esses, -esset ; -essemus, 

Per. Profu-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, 

Plu. Profu-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



-sitis, -sint. 

-essetis, -essent. 

-eritis, -erint. 

-issetis, -issent. 



Pr. 2. Prod-es, or prod-esto, 2. Prod-este, or prod-estote, 
3. Prod-esto ; 3. Pro-sunto. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Prod-esse. 
Per. Pro-fuisse. 



Fut. Esse pro-futurus, a, um. 
F.-P. Fuisse pro-futurus, a, um. 



PARTICIPLES. 
Pro-futurus, a, urn. 



2. Possum is compounded of potis, "able," and sum, "I am." 
ft is thus inflected : 



Possum, 



Pr. Possum, 
Imp. Pot-eram, 



posse, potui, / can, I am able. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

potes, potest ; possumus, potestis, possunt. 
-eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 



-isti, 



Per. Potu-i, 

Plu. Potu-eram, -eras 
Fut. Pot-ero, -eris, 
F.P.Potu-ero, 



-it; 

-erat ; 
-erit ; 



-mius, 

-eramus, 
-erimus, 
-erimus. 



ens, -erit 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



-istis \ - 6runt > 
' ( or -ere. 

-eratis, -erant. 

-erunt. 

-erint. 



-eritis, 
-eritis, 



-sis, 
-ses, 
-eris, 



-sit; 
-set ; 
-erit ; 



-simus, 
-semus, 
-erimus, 



-sitis, 
-setis, 
-eritis, 



-sint. 
-sent, 
-erint. 



Pr. Pos-sim, 

Imp. Pos-sem, 

Per. Potu-erim, 

Plu. Polu-issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, -issetis, -issent 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Posse. Per. Potuisse. (The rest wanting.) 



§ 83 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



183 



3. Eo, 



Pr. Eo, 
Imp. Ibam, 

Per. Ivi, 

Plu. Iveram, 
Fut. Ibo, 
F.-P.Ivero, 



Pr. Earn, 
Imp. Irem, 
Per. Iverim, 
Plu. Ivissem, 



ivi, itum, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



To go. 



is, 
ibas, 



it; 
ibat; 



ivisti, ivit ; 

iveras, iverat ; 

ibis, ibit ; 

iveris, iverit ; 



mius, 
ibamus, 

ivimus, 



itis, eunt. 

ibatis, ibant. 
. . ,. ( iverunt, 

lVlStlS, •< . _ ' 

' ( or lvere. 
iveramus, iveratis, iverant. 
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt. 
iverimus, iveritis, iverint. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



eas, eat ; 
ires, iret ; 
iveris, iverit ; 
ivisses, ivisset; 



eamus, eatis, eant. 

iremus, iretis, irent. 

iverimus, iveritis, iverint. 

ivissemus, ivissetis,ivissent. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Pr - |lto"} It0; |ft?te"j eunt0 - 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Ire. 

Per. Ivisse. 



Fut. Esse ittirus, a, um. 
F.-P.Fuisse ittirus, a, um. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Pr. lens, Gen. euntis. 
Fut. Ittirus, a, um. 



GERUNDS. 

Eundum. 
Eundi, &c. 



SUPINES. 

1. Itum. 

2. Itu. 



The compounds of eo are conjugated after the same man- 
ner ; ad-, ab-, ex-, co-, in-, inter-, ob- } re-d-, sub-, per-, prce-, ante-, 
pro-d-eo ; only in the perfect, and the tenses formed from it, 
they are usually contracted ; thus, adeo, adlre, adii (seldom 
adlvi), aditum, " to go to ;" perf. adii, adiisti, or adisti, &c, 

adieram, adierim, &c. So likewise veneo, venii, , r to be 

sold" (compounded of venum and eo). But ambio, -ire, -Ivi, 
-Itum, u to surround," is a regular verb of the fourth conjuga- 
tion. 

Eo, like other intransitive verbs, is^ often rendered in En- 
glish under a passive form ; thus, it, " he is going ;" Ivit, <; he 
is gone ;" iverat, " he was gone ;" iverit, " he may be gone," or 
" shall be gone." So. venit, " he is coming ;" venit, " he is 



184 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



§ 83 



come ;" venerat, " he was come ;" &c. In the passive voice, 
these verbs, for the most part, are used only impersonally ; 
as, xtur ab Mo, "he is going ;" ventum est ab Mis, " they are 
come." We find some of the compounds of eo, however, used 
personally ; as, pericula adeuntur, " — are undergone." Cic. 
Libri sibylllni aditi sunt, " — were looked into." Liv. Flumen 
pedibus translri potest Cjes. Inimicitice subeantur. Cic. 

Queo, u I can," and nequeo, " I cannot," are conjugated in 
the same way as eo ; only they want the imperative and the 
gerunds, and the participles are seldom used. 



4. Volo, velle, volui, To will, to be willing, to wish. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Vol-o, vis, vult; 

Imp. Vol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; 

Per. Volu-i, -isti, -it: -Imus, 



voliimus, vultis, 
-ebamus, -ebatis, 



-isti, -it ; 

Plu. Volu-eram, -eras, -erat : 

Fut. Vol-am, -es, -et; 
F.-P. Volu-ero, -eris. 



-eramus, 

-emus, 

-erimus, 



-istis, 

-eratis, 

-etis, 

-eritis, 



Pr. Velim, 

Imp. Vellem, 

Per. Volu-erim, -eris, -erit ; 



erit ; 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

velis, velit; veiimus, velitis, 
velles, vellet ; vellemus, velletis, 



volunt. 

-ebant. 

-erunt, 

or -ere. 

-erant. 

-ent. 

-erint. 



-erimus, -eritis, 
Plu. Volu-issem.-isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLE. 

Pr. Velle. Per. Voluisse. Pr. Volens, 



velint. 

vellent 

-erint. 

-issent. 



5. Nolo, nolle, nolui, To be unwilling (from non volo). 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Nolo, non-vis, non-vult; noliimus, non-vultis, nolunt 

Imp. Nol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Nolu-i, -isti, -it ; -imus, -istis, \ ~^™ nt 5 

( or-ere. 

Plu. Nolu-eram, -eras, -erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Nol-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

F.-P.Noluero, -eris, -erit; erimus, -eritis, -erint. 



83 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



185 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Nolim, nolis, nolit ; nollmus, nolltis, nolint. 

Imp. Nollem, nolles, nollet ; nollemus, noil etis, noil ent. 

Per. Nolu-erim, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plu. Nolu-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis. -issent. 



IMPERATIVE. 



INFINITIVE. 



PARTICIPLE. 
Pr. Nolens. 



p j Noli, or } nollte, or Pr. Nolle. 

( Nolito, j nolitote. Per. Noluisse. ( The rest wanting) 



G. Malo, malle, malui, To be more ivilling (inagis 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Mal-o, rmms, mavult; malumus, mavultis, 

Imp. JVJal-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, 

Per. Malu-i, -isti, -it; -imus. 



Plu. Malu-eram, -eras, 
Put. Mal-am, -es, 
F.-P.Malu-ero, 



-ens, 



-erat ; 
-et; 
-erit ; 



-eramus. 

-emus, 

-erimus, 



-istis, \ 

-eratis, 

-etis, 

-eritis, 



Pr. Malim, 
Imp. Mallem, 
Per. Malu-erim, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

malis, malit ; malimus, malitis, 
malles, mallet ; mallemus, malletis, 
-eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, 



Plu. Malu-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Pr. Malle. Per. Maluisse. (The rest not 



3fo). 



malunt. 

-ebant. 

-erunt, 

or-ere. 

-erant. 

-ent. 

-erint. 



malint. 
mallent, 
-erint. 
-issent. 



used.) 



7. Fero, ferre, tuli, latum, To carry, to bring, or suffer. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Fero, fers, fert; 

Imp. Fer-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; 

Per. Tul-i, -isti, -it ; 

Plu. Tul-eram, -eras, -erat: 

Fut. Fer-arn, -es, -et ; 

F.-P.Tul-ero, -eris, -erit; 



ferimus, 
-ebamus, 

-imus, 



fertis, ferunt. 
-ebatis, -ebant. 



-istis 



j -erunt, 
'' (-or-ere. 



-eramus, -eratis, -erant. 
-emus, -etis, -ent. 
-erimus, -eritis, -erint. 



186 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



§83 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fer-am, -as, -at ; -amus, -atis, 

Imp. Fer-rem, -res, -ret; -remus, -retis, 

Per. Tul-erim, -eris, -erit; -erlmus, -eritis, 

Plu. Tul-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

ferto ; ferte, or fertote, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Pr. Fer, or ferto, 

Pr. Ferre. 

Per. Tulisse. 



ant. 
-rent, 
-erint. 
-issent. 



ferunto. 



Fut. Esse laturus, a, um. 
F.-P. Fuisse laturus, a, urn. 



Pr. 

Fut, 



PARTICIPLES. GERUNDS. 

Ferens. N. Ferendum. 

Laturus, a, um. G. Ferendi, &c. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Feror, ferri, latus, To be brought 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



SUPINES. 

1. Latum. 

2. Latu. 



Pr. 



Feror, \ fer f s > 
( or ierre. 

( -ebaris, 



Imp. Fer-ebar, 

Per. 
Plu. 



fertur ; ferimur, 
-ebatur ; -ebamur, 



ferimini, 
-ebamini, 



| or -ebare, J 
Latus sum, or fui, latus es, or fuisti, latus est, or fuit, <fec. 
Latus erani, or fueram, latus eras, or fueras, (fee. 



feruntur. 
-ebantur. 



Fut. 
F.-P. 

Pr. 

Imp. 

Per. 
Plu. 

Pr. 



Pr. 
Per. 

Fut. 



Ferar, 



' j fereris, } 
" rere, ) 



I or ferer 
Latus fuero, latus fueris, latus fuerit, <fcc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

feraris, 



feretur; feremur, feremini, ferentur. 



Ferar, \ 

( or ierare, 

-o ( ferreris, 

rerrer, ■{ c _' 

' ( or ferrere. 



>• feratur ; feramur, feramini, ferantur. 

y ferretur; ferremur, ferreniini, ferrentur. 

Latus sim, or fuerim, latus sis, or fueris, <tc. 
Latus essem, or fuissem, latus esses, or fuisses, <fcc. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Ferre, or fertor, fertor ; ferimini, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Ferri. 

Esse, or fuisse latus, a, um. 

Latum iri. 



feruntor. 
PARTICIPLES. 

Per. Latus, a, um. 
Fut. Ferendus, a, um. 



§ 83 IRREGULAR VERBS. 187 

In like manner are conjugated the compounds of fero ; as, 
affero, attuli, alia turn ; aufero, abstuli, abldtum ; d'ljjero, distuli, 
dildtum ; confero, contuli, collation ; infero, intuit, illdtumj 
offero, obtuli, obldtum ; effero, extuli, datum. So, circum-, per-, 
trams-) de-, pro-, ante-, prat-, re-fero. In some writers, we mid 
adfero, adtuli, adldtum ; con latum ; inldtum ; obfero, dec, for 
affero, dec. 

Obs. 1. The greater part of the preceding verbs are mad6 
irregular by contraction. Thus, nolo is contracted for non 
volo ; mdlo, for magis volo ; few, fers, fert, dec, for feris, 
ferit, dee. Feror,ferris or ferre,fertur, for ferrer is, dec. 



8. Fio, fieri, factus, To be made, or done; to become. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fio, fis, fit; fimus, fitis, fiunt. 

Imp. Fiebam, fiebas, fiebat ; fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebant. 
Per. Factus sum, or fui, factus es, or fuisti, dec 
Plu. Factus eram, or fueram, factus eras, or fueras, dec. 
Fux. Fiam, fies, fiet ; fiemus, fietis, fient. 

F.-P. Factus fuero, factus fueris, dec. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD, 

Pr. Fiam, nas, fiat ; fiamus, fiatis, fiant. 

Imp. Fierem, fieres, fieret ; fieremus, fieretis, fierent. 
Per. Factus sim, or fuerim, factus sis, or fueris, dec. 
Plu. Factus essem, or fuissem, factus esses, or fuisseg. dec 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

-r> ( Fi, or ) p., j f ite, or ) - , 

Pr ' JFllo, } flt0 ' jfitote, f- unt0 = 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Fieri. 

Per. Esse, or fiiisse factus, a, um. 

Fut. Factum iri. 

PARTICIPLES. SUPINE. 

Fut. Faciendus, a, um. 2. Factu. 

Per. Factus, a, um. 

Obs. 2. The third person singular of fio is often used im- 
personally ; as, fit, "it happens -"fiebat, "it happened." 



188 DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 84 

Obs. 3. Fio is used as the passive of fa cio, from which it 
takes the participles. The compounds of facio which retain a 
have fio in the passive ; as, calefacio, " I warm ;" calefio, " I 
become warm," " I am warmepV' &c. But those compounds 
which change facio into ficio have the regular passive in ficior ; 
as, conficio, conficior, &c. 

9. To irregular verbs may be added edo, " to eat." Though 
this is a regular verb of the third conjugation, it has an irre- 
gular form resembling sum in the present indicative, imperfect 
subjunctive, the imperative, and the present infinitive ; thus, 

Edo, • edere, or esse, edi, esum, To eat 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Pr. Edo, \ ' \ l \ [ edimus, \ e l ■■' I edunt. 
5 ( or es, ( or est ; J ' ( or estis, j 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

I j Ederem, ederes, ederet, ederemus, ederetis, ederent. 

( or essem, esses, esset ; essemus,- essetis, essent. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

p j Ede, or edito, edito ; edite, or editote, ) •, 
( Es, or esto, esto ; este, or estote, J 



§ 84. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

222. — Defective Verbs are those in which, 
some of the parts are wanting. 

1. These three, odi, coepi, and memini, are used only in the 
preterite tenses, that is, in the perfect, and the tenses derived 
from it ; and for this reason, they are called Preterite 
Verbs. 

Obs. 1. Coepi has a present, as well as a perfect significa- 
tion ; and hence coeperam has the sense of the imperfect, as 
well as of the pluperfect ; and coepero, of the future, as well as 
of the future perfect ; thus, coepi, " I begin," or " I have begun;" 
coeperam, " I began," or " I had begun ;" coepero, 4i I shall be- 
gin," or " I shall have begun ;" and so of the subjunctive. 



§ 84 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 189 

Obs. 2. Odi and memini have the sense only of the present, 
imperfect, and future; as, odi, "I hate;" oderam, "I hated ; 
odero, u I will hate." 

2. The parts of these verbs in use are as follows, through 
all their persons and numbers ; viz : 

Odi, oderam, odero, oderim, odissem, odisse. 

Participles, osus, osurus. 
Coepi, coeperam, ccepero, cceperim, coepissem, ccepisse. 

Participles, cceptus, ccepturus. 

Memini, meminerain, meniinero, meminerim, meminissem, meminisse. 

Imperative, memento, mementote. 

3. The verb novi is also used as a preterite, having like 
odi and memini only the sense of the present, the imperfect, 
and future. It differs from the others, however, in having a 
present, nosco, which properly has an inceptive sense, mean- 
ing " I begin to know," " I learn ;" hence novi, " I have 
learned," that is, " I know." 

The parts of novi in use are as follows ; viz ; 

Novi, noveram, novero, noverim, novissem, novisse; 
Contracted, noram, norim, nossem, nosse. 

4. There are many verbs, not usually considered among 
defectives, which want certain tenses, or numbers, or persons ; 
thus, do, u I give," has neither dor nor der. Fari, " to speak," 
with its compounds, is used only by the poets, and by them 
chiefly in the third person, fatur; the imperative fare; and the 
participle fdtus. The ablative gerund, fando, occurs in a pas- 
sive sense. 

Furere, "to be mad," wants the first person singular, and 
the second person plural of the present, and probably all the 
future of the indicative, the imperative, and also the perfect 
and supine. 

5. The following defective verbs are those which most 
frequently occur. Aio, u I say ;" — inquam, " I say," which is 
used only between words quoted, and never stands at the 
beginning; — for em, "I should be;" the same as essem ; — ave, 
and salve, Ci hail ;" — Cedo, " tell thou," or " give me ;" — quceso, 
u I beseech," originally the same as qucero. It is used com- 
monly as an interjection. 



190 IMPERSONAL VERBS. § 85 

The parts of these verbs remaining are the following : 
1. Aio, I say, I affirm. 

Ind. Pa. Aio, ais, ait; aiunt. 

Imp. Aiebam, aiebas, aiebat; aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant. 

• Per. aisti, ait 

Sub. Pr. aias, aiat, aiant, 

Imp Pr. ai. 

Part. Pr. Aiens. 

2, Inquam, I say. 

Lid. Pr. Inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt. 

Imp. — - inquiebat; inquiebant 

Per. inquisti, inquit. 

Put. inquies, inquiet. 

Imp. Pr. inque, inquito; inquite. 

Part. Pr. Inquiens. 

3. Porem, / should be. 

Sub. Imp. Forem, fores, foret; forent. 

Inf. Fut. Fore, to be about to be, same a&futurum esse. , 

4. Ave, hail. 
Imp. Pr. Ave, or aveto ; avete, or avetote. Inf. Pr. Avere. 

5. Salve, hail. 
Ind. Fut. Salvebis. 

Imp. Pr. ' Salve, or salveto ; salvete, or salvetote. 
Inf. Pr. Salvere. 

6. Cedo, tell, give. 
Imp. Pr. Cedo ; cedo, or cedite, contracted, cette. 

f l. Qujeso, / beseech. 
Ind. Pr. Quseso; qua3siimus 

6. Ausim, faxim, and faxo, sometimes called defective verbs, are proper- 
ly old forms of tenses ; ausim being put for auserim, from audeo, " to dare ;" 
find faxim and fa xo, for fecerim and fecero, from fano. So also age and 
agite, " come," are imperatives from ago, in a somewhat different sense, 
just as ave, "hail," is an imperative from aveo, "to be well." 



223.— § 85. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

1. Impersonal Verbs are those which are used 
only in the third person singular, and do not admit 
of a personal subject or nominative before them. 



§85 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



191 



2. Impersonal verbs, when translated literally into English,, 
have before them the neuter pronoun it; as, delectat, "it de- 
lights ;" decet, " it becomes ;" contingit, " it happens ;" evenit, 
*' it comes to pass ;" &c. They are inflected thus : 





1st. Co nj. 


2d Conj. 


3d Conj. 


4th Conj. 


Ind. Pr. 


Delectat, 


Decet, 


Contingit, 


Evenit, 


Imp. 


Delectabat, 


Decebat, 


Contingebat, 


Evenicbat, 


Per. 


Delectavit, 


Decuit, 


Contigit, 


Evenit, 


Plu. 


Delectaverat, 


Decuerat, 


Contigerat, 


Evenerat, 


Fut. 


Delectabit, 


Decebit, 


Continget, 


Eveniet, 


F.-P. 


Delectaverit. 


Decuerit. 


Contigerit. 


Evenerit 


Sub. Pr. 


Delectet, 


Deceat, 


Contingat, 


Eveniat, 


Imp 


Delectaret, 


Deceret, 


Contingeret, 


Eveniret, 


Per. 


Delectaverit, 


Decuerit, 


Contigerit, 


Evenerit, 


Plu. 


Delectavisset 


Decuisset. 


Contigisset. 


Evenisset. 


Inf. Pr. 


Delectare, 


Decere, 


Contingere, 


Evenire, 


Per. 


Delectavisse. 


Decuisse. 


Contigisse. 


Evenisse. 



3. Most Latin verbs may be used impersonally in the pas- 
sive voice, especially intransitive verbs, which otherwise have 
no passive; as, pugnatur, / " it is fought;" favetur, "it is 
favored;" curritur, "it is run;" venltur, "it is come;" from 
pitgno, faveo, curro, and venio. Thus, 



Ind. Pr. 
Imp. 
Per. 
Plu. 
Fut. 
F.-P. 

Sub. Pr. 
Imp. 
Per. 
Plu. 

Inf. Pr. 
Per. 
Fut. 



1st Conj. 
Pugnatur, 
Pugnabatur, 
Pugnatum est, 1 
Pugnatum erat, 2 
Pugnabitur, 
Pugnatum erit. 3 

Pugnetur, 
Pugnaretur, 
Pugnatum sit, 3 
Pugnatum esset. 4 

Pugnari, 
Pugnatum esse, 5 
Pugnatum iri. 



2d Conj. 
Favetur, 
Favebatur, 
Fautum est, 1 
Fautum erat, 2 
Favebitur, 
Fautmn erit. 3 



3d Cor.j. 

Curritur, 
Currebatur, 
Cursum est, 1 
Cursum erat, 2 
Curretur, 
Cursum erit. 3 



4th Conj. 
Venitur, 
Veniebatur, 
Ventum est, 1 
Ventum erat, 2 
Venietur, 
Ventum erit. 3 



Faveatur, Curratur, Veniatur, 

Faveretur, Curreretur, Venire tur, 

Fautum sit, 3 Cursum sit, 3 Ventum sit. 3 
Fautum esset. 4 Cursum esset. 4 Ventum esset. 4 



Faveri, Curri, 

Fautum esse, 5 Cursum esse, 5 
Fautum iri. Cursum iri. 



Venlri, 

Ventum esse, 5 
Ventum iri. 



4. Grammarians reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, and 
all in the second conjugation ; namely, 



Decet, decuit, etc., 

LTbet, libuit or libitum est, <fcc. 



It becomes, it became, efce. 
It pleases, it pleased, &e. 



i or fuit. 2 or fuerat. « or fuerit. 4 or fuisset. 5 or fuisse. 



192 IMPEKSONAL VERBS. § 85 

Licet, licuit or licitum est, &c, It is law/id, it was lawful, &c. 
Miseret, miseruit or miseritum est, <fec, It pities, it pitied, (fee. 

Oportet, oportuit, &a., It behooves, it was incumbent on, &<s. 

Piget, piguit or pigitum est, &c, It grieves, it grieved, <fec. 

' Poenitet, pcenituit, <fec., It repents, it repented, &o. 

Piidet, puduit or puditum est, &Q., It shaines, it shamed, &c. 

Tsedet, tseduit or tsesum est, <ko., It wearies, it wearied, &c. 

Liquet, It appears. (This verb has no perf.) 

But many other verbs are used impersonally in all the con- 
jugations. 

5. Under impersonal verbs, may be comprehended those 
which express the operations or appearances of nature ; as, 
fulgurat, " it lightens ;" fuhiinat, tbnat, " it thunders ;" grandi- 
nat, " it hails ;" so, gelat, pluit, ningit, lucescit, advesperas 
cit, &c. 

6. Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number, 
by putting that which stands before personal verbs, as their 
nominative, after the impersonals, in the case which they 
govern; as, 

Placet mild, It pleases me, or I please. 
Placet tibi, It pleases thee, or thou pleasest 
Placet illi, It pleases him, or he pleases. 
Placet nobis, It pleases us, or we please. 
Placet vobis, - It pleases you, or you please. 
Placet illis, It pleases them, or they please. 

So, pug?idtur a me, — a te, — ah illo, &c, " it is fought by me," 
— " by thee," — " by him ;" that is, I fight, thou tightest, he 
fights, &c. Hence, as the meaning of a .transitive verb may 
be expressed by either the active or the passive voice, so, when 
an intransitive verb is translated by a verb considered tran- 
sitive in English (132, Obs. 4), the English passive form of 
that verb is expressed, in Latin, by the passive used im- 
personally : thus, actively, faveo ffoi, "I favor yea;" pas- 
sively, favetur tibi a me, " you are favored by me," and so of 
others. 

7. Impersonal verbs, not being used in the imperative, take; 
the subjunctive in its stead ; as, delectet, " let it delight." In 
the passive voice, their participles are used only in the neuter 
gender. The gerunds and supines are but seldom used. 



§ 86 IMPEKSOXAL VERBS. 193 

224,— § 86. EXERCISES ON IMPERSONALS. 

(For the meaning of the impersonate used in the following 
exercises, see 223, Nos. 2, 3, 4.) 

1. Give the designation, the place found, the translation ; thus, delectat, 
a verb impersonal, first conjugation, found in the present indicative, active; 
" it delights." 

Delectabit, decebat, deeebit, deceret, contingit, continget, 
contlgit, contigerit, evenit, evenit, eveniet, eveniat, pugnabatur, 
pugnatum est, pugnetur, pugnaretur, favetur, fautum sit, 
fautum fiierit, ventum est, ventum erit ; — libet, libuit, licitum 
est, miseret, miseritum est, piget, piidet, fulgurat, tonat, 
grand inabat, grandinabit ninxit, &c. 

2. Give the designation, &c, as in No. 1, and translate as the word fol- 
lowing the impersonal requires, according to 223-6 ; thus, delectat me, 
delectat, a verb impersonal, first conjugation, present indicative, active ; 
" it delights me," or " I delight." 

Delectabit me, te, ilium, nos, vos, illos ; decet vos, deceret 
vos ; placet tibi ; favetur vobis, favebitur nobis (a te, by yoit) ; 
pugnabitur ab illis ; venitur a te, ventum est ab illis, — a vobis, 
— a nobis, — ab illo, — a te, — a me ; piget me ; licet milii, 
licebit vobis, licitum est illis ; miseret me, miseruit te ; placuit 
vobis, — nobis, — illis ; miseret nos, &c. 

3. Render the following English into Latin, by the impersonals ; thus, 
" I delight," delectat me, literally, " it delights me." — iV. B. The noun or 
pronoun, after miseret, poeiutet, piidet, tcedet, piget, decet, delectat, and opor- 
tet, must be put in the accusative, 419 and 423. Other impersonals are 
followed by the dative of the object, when they have one ; and when they 
express any thing done by another, the agent or doer, when expressed, is 
put in the ablative preceded by a or ab, as in 223-6. 

Exercises. — It becomes, it has repented, it is fought, it 
pleases, it is favored; it becomes me, I repent (it repents 
me), I fight (it is fought by me), you are favored (it is favored 
to you), you are favored by me; I repented, they have 
repented, you will repent; they are favored by us, — by you, 
— by me, &c. ; we are favored by them, — by you ; they come 
(it is come by them), they have come, we will come ; we run, 
we will run ; if (si) you please, if they please ; it was allowed 
to us, we were allowed ; it delights us, or we are delighted, 
they are delighted ; it thunders, it lightens, it hailed, dec. 



194 REDUNDANT AND DERIVATIVE VERBS. § 87, 88 

§ 87. REDUNDANT VERBS. 

225. — Redundant Verbs are those which have more than 
one form of the same part, or which have different forms to 
express the same sense ; as, assentio and assentior, fcC to assent ;" 
fabrico or fabricor, " to frame ;" mereo and mereor, " to de- 
serve ;" edis and es, " thou eatest ;" edit and est, " he eats ;" 
from edo, &c. 

Redundant verbs, in Latin, are chiefly those which are used 
in two different conjugations ; for example, 

1. Some are usually of the first conjugation, and sometimes 
of the third ; as, lavo, lavare ; and lavo, lav ere, u to wash." 

2. Some are usually of the second conjugation, and some- 
times of the third ; as, 

Ferveo, fervere ; and fervo, fervere, to boil. 
Fulgeo, fulgere ; " fulgo, fulgere, to shine. 
Strideo, stridere; " strido, stridere, to creak, &c. 

3. Some are commonly of the third conjugation, and some- 
times of the fourth ; as, 

Fodio, fodere ; and fodio, fodire, to dig. 
Sallo, sallere ; " sallio, sallire, to salt, &c. 

4. Cieo, ciere is commonly of the second conjugation, but 
sometimes it is cio, clre in the fourth, " to stir up." 



§ 88. DERIVATIVE VERBS. 

Verbs are derived either from nouns, or from other verbs. 

226. — I. Verbs derived from nouns are called Denomina- 
tives ; as, caino, " to sup ;" laudo, " to praise -" fraudo. " to de- 
fraud ;" lapido, " to throw stones ;" operor, " to work,"' &c, 
from coena, laus,fraus, lapis, opus, <fcc. 

But when they express imitation or resemblance, they are 
called Imita lives ; as, patrisco, Grascor, bubulo, cormcor. &c, 
"I imitate," or "resemble my father," — "a Grecian." — "an 
owl," — "a crow ;" from pater. Gracus. bubo, comix. 



§ 88 DERIVATIVE VERBS. 195 

227. — II. Verbs derived from other verbs, are chiefly the 
following ; viz. : 

1. Frequentatives. These express, frequency of action, and 
are all of the first conjugation. They are formed from the 
last supine, by changing atu into ito : in the verbs of the first 
conjugation; and u into o, in verbs of the other three conjuga- 
tions ; thus, 

Last Sup. Freq. 

1st. Clamo, to cry ; clamatu, hence clamito, to cry frequently. 

2d. TerreOj to frighten ; territu, " territo, to frighten often. 

3d. Verto, to turn; versu, " verso, to turn frequently. 

4th. Dormio, to sleep ; dormitu, " dormlto, to sleep often. 

Ill like manner, deponent verbs form frequentatives in or; 
as, minor, "to threaten;" of which in the active voice, the 
latter supine would be mindtu, and hence minitor, il to threaten 
frequently," " — ever and anon." 

Obs. 1. Some frequentatives are formed in an irregular 
manner; as, nato, from no; noscito, from nosco ; scltor or rather 
sciscitor, from scio; pavito, from paveo; sector, from sequor; 
loqiiitor, from loquor. So qucerito, fundtto, agito, flutto, &c, 
which formed regularly would be qucesito, fuso, ado, fluxo, eVc. 

Obs. 2. From frequentative verbs are also formed other 
frequentatives; as, curro, curso, cursito ; pello, pulso, pulsito, or, 
by contraction,^ Uo; capio, capto, captito ; cano, canto, cantMo; 
defendn. defenso, defensito ; dlco, dicto, dicfito ; &c. 

Obs. 3. Frequentatives do not always express frequency of 
action. Many of them have much the same sense with their 
primitives, or express the meaning with greater force. 

2. Inceptive Verbs. These mark the beginning or continued 
increase of an action or state. They are formed by adding 
co to the second person singular of the present indicative ; 
thus, 

1st Conj. Labo, labas ; Inceptive, labasco. 

2d " Caleo, cales; " calesco. 

3d " Tremo, tremis ; " tremisco 

4th c; Obdormio, obdormis ; " obdormisco. 

Note. — Bat all verbs in sco are not inceptives. Inceptives are also formed 
from substantives and adjectives; as, puerasco, from puer; dulcesco, from 
dulcis : juvenesco, from juvhiis. 

Obs. 4. All inceptives are intransitives, and of the third 



196 ADVERBS. § 89 

conjugation. They properly want both the perfect and the 
supine, unless very rarely, when they borrow them from 
their primitives. 

8. Desiderative Verbs are those which signify a desire, or 
intention of doing a thing. They are formed from the latter 
supine by adding rio, and shortening u; as, coenaturio, "I 
desire to sup,'' from coeno, last supine, coenatu. They are all 
of the fourth conjugation, and want both perfect and supine, 
except these three ; viz. : esurio, esurlre, esurivi, esurltum, " to 
desire to eat ;" parturib, parturire, parturivi, "to be in travail ;" 
and nupturio, nupturire, nupturlvi, "to desire to be married." 

4. Diminutives, which represent an action as little or 
insignificant. They are formed from the present by changing 
o, eo, and io, into illo ; and they are all of the first conjugation ; 
as, canto, cantillo, conscrlho, conscribillo, sorbeo, sorbillo. 

5. Some verbs in SSO are called Intensive ; as, capesso, 
" I take ;" face sso, " I do ;" petesso, or petisso, " I seek earnestly." 



§ 89. ADVERBS. 

228. — An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb, to modify it, or to 
denote some circumstance respecting it. 

229. — Adverbs may be considered in respect 
of Signification, Derivation, and Comparison. 

I. THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

230. — In respect of signification, adverbs may 
be arranged, in Latin, under the following heads ■ 

1. Adverbs of Place, comprehending those which signify : 
1st. Motion or rest in a place ; as, ubi, "where ;" hie, " here ;" illic, " there f 

intus, " within ;" /oris, "without;" ublque, "every where;" (fee. 
2d. Motion to a place ; as, quo ?" whither ?" hue, " hither ;" illuc, isthuc, 

" thither ;" eo, " to that place ;" alio, " to another place ;" <fec. 
3d. Motion from a place ; as, unde, "whence;" liinc, "hence;" illinc,inde % 

" thence ;" superne, " from above ;" <fcc. 



§ 89 ADVERBS. 197 

4th. JIono?i through or by a place; as, qua? 'which way?" In ( tills 
way ;" alia, " another way ;" <fcc. 

2. Adverbs of Time; as, nunc, "now;" /iodic, " to-day;" tan, ' then f 
nuper, u lately ;" ?/?o:c, " by and by ;" semper, u always ;" &c. 

3. Adverbs of Quantity; as, pdrum, " little;" multum, " much ;'' jtcne^ 
■ ahnost ;" quanto, " how much ;" <fcc. 

4. Adverbs of Quality; as, bene, "well;" male, " ill;" fortxter, "brave- 
ly ;" and many others derived from adjectives or participles. 

5. Adverbs of Manner (viz. of action or condition), including those 
which express exhort ation^ affirmation, negation, granting, forbidding ', in- 
terrogation, doubt, contingency, <tc. ; as. prrofecto, "truly ;" non, haud, "not;' 
cur? "why?" qucire, "wherefore," <fcc. 

6. Adverbs of Relation, or such as express circumstances of com- 
parison, resemblance, order, assemblage, sepjaration, <fcc. ; a&,potius, "rather;" 
ita, sic, " so ;" swud, " together ;" seorsum, " apart ;" &c. 

II. DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS. 

231. — The Simple and Primitive adverbs are 
but few in number; as, non, "not;" ibi, "there;" 
mox, " presently ;" tunc, " then ;" <fec. 

232. — The Derivative adverbs are numerous, 
and are formed in the following manner : 

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions, 
generally end in e ; as, alte, " highly," from alius ; libere, " freely," from 
liber. Sometimes they end in o, um, or ter ; as, tuto, safely," from tutus ; 
tantum, " so much," from tantus ; dure and duriter, " hardly," from durus. 

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension generally 
end In ter; as, feliciter, "happily," from felix. Sometimes in e; as, facile, 

* easily," from facilis ; and one ends in o, namely, omnino, " altogether," 
from omnis. 

The neuter gender of adjectives is often used adverbially ; as ; recens, 
" recently," for recenter ; torva, " sternly," for torve ; dulce, "sweetly," for 
dulcltcr ; thus, Horace, dulce rldens, " sweetly smiling ;" <fcc. 

8. Adverbs derived from nouns generally end in hn or itus ; as, viritim, 
i: man by man," from vir ; funditus, " from the ground,'" from fundus. 

Many adverbs in im, however, are derived from participles ; as, sensim, 

* by degrees," from sensus (seniio, " I perceive "). A few in itus are de- 
rived from adjectives ; as, antiquitus, from antiquus ; <fcc. 



198 



ADVERBS 



89 



4. Adverbs are formed by composition in various ways ; two or more 
words forming a phrase, or part of a sentence, and syntactically combined, 
being formed into one word ; as, hodie, " to-day," from hoc die ; scilicet, 
"truly," from scire licet; quomodo, "how," from quo modo ; quamobrem, 
" wherefore," from quam ob rem ; <kc. 

Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech It only serves to 
express in one word what would otherwise have required two or more ; as, 
sapienter, " wisely," for cum sapientia ; semper, " always," for in omni 
tempore ; &e. Indeed, similar phrases, used to express circumstances of 
time, place, manner, order, and the like, constitute what may be called 
adverbial phrases, or clauses, though the words of which they consist are 
to be parsed separately, and combined according to the rules of syntax. 

Obs. 2. Some adverbs are used to denote time, place, or order, according 
as the connection requires ; as, ubi, " where," or " when ;" inde, " from that 
place," " from that time," " after that," " next ;" hactemis, * hitherto," " thus 
far," applied indifferently to place, time, or order. 

Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time, apply indifferently to the past, the 
present, or the future; as jam, "already," "now," "by and by," olim, 
" long ago," " sometime hereafter." Some adverbs of place are equally 
various in their use ; as, esse peregre, " to be abroad ;" ire peregre, " to go 
abroad ;" redire peregre, " to return from abroad." 

III. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

233. — Adverbs derived from adjectives are 
generally compared like their primitives. The 
positive commonly ends in e, 6>, or ter; the com- 
parative, in ius / and the superlative, in ime / as, 



Positive. 


Comp. 


Super. 


Alte, highly; 


altius, 


altissime. 


Fortiter, bravely; 


fortius, 


fortissime. 


Acriter, sharply ; 


acrius, 


acerrime. 


Libere, freely ; 


liberius, 


liberrime. 


Tuto, safely ; 


tutius, 


tutissime. 


234. — The following adverbs are co 


npared irregularly, like the ad- 


jectives from which they are 


derived ; viz 




Positive. 


Comp. 


Super. 


Bene, well ; 


melius, 


optime. 


Facile, easily ; 


facilius, 


facillime. 


Male, badly ; 


pejus, 


pessime. 


Multum, much 


plus, 


plurimum. 


Parum, little ; 


minus, 


j minime. 
j minimum. 


Prope, near ; 


propius. 


proxime. 



§ 90 PREPOSITIONS. 199 

Positive wanting, 

Magis, more, maxim e ; ocius, more swiftly, ocissime ; priiis, sooner 
primo or primum ; potius, rather, potissimum. 

Comparative wanting. 

Pene, almost, penissime ; nuper, lately, nuperrime f nove or noviter 
newly, novissime ; merito, deservedly, meritissime. 

Superlative wanting. 
Satis, enough, satius ; secus, otherwise, secius. 

Two Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also compared ; namely, 
di u, " long," diutius, diutissime ; and seepe, " often," sazpius, scepisslme. 



§ 90. PREPOSITIONS. 

235. — A Preposition is a word which shows 
the relation between a noun or pronoun following 
it, and some other word in the sentence. 

The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pronoun 
which it governs. — In Latin, 

1. Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative ; viz : 

Ad, to, at, towards. Inter, between, among, during, 

Apud, at, near, with. Intra, within. 

Ante, before (of time, place, Juxta, near, beside. 

or rank). Ob, for, on account of, before, 

Adversus, ) . . . - , Penes, in the power of. 

. , y against, towards. -r> .1 l j • i 

Adversum, ) * ' Per, through, during, by. 

Circa, ) . , .. Pone, behind. 

^. ' V around, about. . ', ,. , A 

Circum, J Post, behind, after, since, 

Circiter, about (of time inde- Prater, besides (passing by), 

finitely). beyond, besides, except. 

Cis, \ , . .j . , . Propter, near, on account of. 

Citra, ) i,i . Secundum, along, according 

Contra, against, opposite. to. 

Erga, towards. Supra, above. 

Extra, beyond, out of. Trans, across, over, beyond. 

Infra, beneath. Ultra, beyond. 



200 PREPOSITIONS. § 90 

2. Fifteen Prepositions govern the ablative ; viz : 

. ' / , tap i7 ' [ out of, from, after, by. 

Ab, V /m?i, £y, a/ter, &c. Ex, j •"•' ' J - y 

Abs, j Palam, before, with the know- 

Absque, without. ledge of 

Clam, without the know- Pree, before, in comparison wiih x 

ledge of on account of 

Coram, before, in presence of Pro, before, for, according to. 

Cum, with. Sine, without. 

De, concerning ', of over. Terms, as far as, up to. 

8. Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Ablative ; viz : 

With the Accusative : With the Ablative : 

In. into, towards, against. In, upon, in, among. 

Sub , under ( motion to ) , Sub, under (motion or rest), 

about. at, near. 

Super, above, over, beyond. Super, upon, concerning. 

Subter, under. Subter, under. 

236.— OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before consonants ; ab, before vowels, and h, j, r, s, and 
sometimes I ; abs, before t and qu. E is used before consonants. 

2. Tenus is placed after its case ; and also cum, when joined to me, te. 
se, quo, qui, and quibus ; as, mecum, &e. Clam sometimes governs the ac- 
cusative ; as, clam patre, or patrem. 

3. The adverbs prope, " nigh f usque, " as far as ;" versus, " towards," are 
often followed by an accusative governed by ad understood, and sometimes 
expressed. So also procul, " far," is followed by the ablative governed by 
a, understood. 

4. Prepositions not followed by their case, are to be regarded as ad- 
verbs. . 

5. Prepositions are sometimes combined ; as, ex adversus eum locum, 
Cic. In ante diem, " till the day." Id. Ex ante diem, l * from the day." 
But prepositions compounded together, commonly become adverbs or con- 
junctions ; as, propalam, protinus, insuper, <fcc. 

6. A preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial phrase ; as, 
ex animo, " earnestly ;" ex adverso, " opposite ;" ex improvlso, " suddenly f 
extempore, " off-hand." Quamobrem (quam ob rem), " wherefore ;" qua- 
propter (qua propter) ; quocirca (quod circa), etc. 

7. Prepositions are either primitive ; as, aa\ apud, ante, &q. ; or deriva- 
tive ; as. adversum, from the adjective adversus ; secundum, from secundus. 
They are either simple ; as, ad, ante, abs ; or compound; as, ex adversum, 
absque; or inseparable ; as, am, di or dls, &c. 239-2. 



§ 91 PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 201 

§ 91. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 

237. — 1. " Prepositions are often prefixed to 
other words, especially to verbs, the meaning of 
which, they generally modify by their own ; thus, 

238. — 1. A, ab, ab.% " from ;" as, duco, " I lead ;" abduco, " I lead away/' 
or " from f sometimes it denotes privation ; as, dmens, " mad." 

2. Ad, " to ;" as, adduco, " I lead to." It is sometimes intensive ; as 
addmo, "I love greatly" 

3. De, in composition generally signifies " downward f as, descendo, " I 
go down ;" decido, " I fall down." Sometimes it is intensive ; as, dec. 

" I love greatly ;" sometimes it denotes privation ; as, despero, " I despair f 
deinens, " mad." 

4. E or ex, " out of," " from ;" as, exeo, " I go out." It is sometimes in- 
tensive ; as, exoro, " I beg earnestly ;" sometimes privative ; as, exsangnis, 
" pale ;" exspes, u hopeless." 

5. In, u into," " in," " against ;" as, infero, " I bring in ;" irruo, " I rush, 
against or upon." "With adjectives it generally reverses the signification ; 
as, infidus, " unfaithful ;" indignus, " unworthy." In some compounds, it 
has contrary significations, according as they are participles or adjectives ; 
as, invocatus, " called upon ;" "not called upon;" immutatus, "changed," 
" unchanged." 

6. Per, " through," is commonly intensive, especially with adjectives ; as, 
perfacilis, "very easy." With quean, it is stroDgly intensive ; as, per quam 
facili.s, " exceedingly easy." In perfidus, " perfidious," it is negative. 

7. Prce, " before," with adjectives is intensive ; as, prceclarvs, " veiy 
clear," " very renowned." 

8. Pro denotes " forth ;" as, produco, " I lead forth." 

9. Sub often diminishes the signification ; as, rideo, " I laugh ;" subrideo, 
" I smile ;" albus, " white ;" subalbus, " whitish." Sometimes it denotes 
motion upwards ; as, subrigo, " I raise up ;" sometimes concealment ; as, 
rapio, " I take ;" sicbripio, " I take secretly," " I steal;' 

Note. —Prepositions frequently seem to add nothing to the words, with 
which they are compounded. 

Ob*. 1. In combining with the simple word, some prepositions frequently 
undergo a change of form, chiefly for the sake of euphony, for which see 
215-5. 

9* 



202 INTEKJECTIONS. § 92 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

239. — 2. The following syllables, a/yi, di, or dis, 
re, se, con, are called Inseparable Prepositions, 
because they are never found, except in compound 
words. Their general signification is as follows : 

Am, about, around; as Ambio, to surround. 

Di, or (lis, asunder ; " Divello, to pull asunder. 

Re, back, again ; " Relego, to read again. 

Se, apart, or aside; " Sepono, to lag aside. 

Con, together ; " Coneresco, to grow together. 

Obs. 1. Some of these syllables, in combining with the simple word, some- 
times vary their form (215-5), and, also, further modify its signification ; as, 
1st. Am adds to the verb the general idea of round, round about. 
2d. Dis, or di, sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word ; as, 
facilis, " easy ;" difficilis, " difficult ;" fido, " I trust," dijjido, " I dis- 
trust." Sometimes it increases it ; as, cupio, " I desire ;" discupio, 
" I desire much." 
3d. Re sometimes reverses the meaning of the simple word ; as, claudo, 

" I shut ;" recludo, " I open." 
4th. Se has little variation of meaning. With adjectives, it denotes priva- 
tion ; as, securus, " free from care." 
5th. Con (for cum) conveys the idea of joint or combined action, and some 
times strengthens the meaning of the word with which it is com- 
pounded. 

Obs. 2. The syllables ne and ve are also prefixed to words, and have a 
negative signification ; as, fas, " justice ;" nefas, " injustice," " impiety ;" — 
scio, " I know ;" nescio, " I know not ;" — sanus, " healthy ;" vesanus, " sickly." 



§ 92. INTERJECTIONS. 

240. — An Interjection is a word used in ex- 
clamations, to express an emotion of the mind ; 
as, Oh ! liei ! lien / " Ah !" " alas !" 

Nouns aud adjectives, in the neuter gender, are sometimes used as 

interjections; as, pax ! "be still!" malum! "with a mischief!" infandum ! 

" O shame !" miserum I " wretched !" nefas ! " O the villany I" 

Note. — The same interjection is often used to express different emotions, 
according to its connection; thus, vah, is used to express . > uder, grief, joy, 
or anger. 



§ 93 conjunctions. 203 

§ 93. CONJUNCTIONS. 

241. — A Conjunction is a word which connects 
words or sentences ; as, et, ac, atque, " and ;" sed, 
u but ;" etiam, " also f &c. 

242. — Conjunctions, according to their different significations, 
may be divided into the following classes : 

1. Copulatives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
jointly; as, ac, atque, et, que t " and;" etiam, quoque, " also ;" and sometimes 
the negative nee, neque, " nor," " and not ;" i. e. when they stand for et, and 
continue the negation. 

2. Disjunctives, or such as connect things that are to be considered 
separately ; as, aut, seu, sive, ve, vel, " either," "or;" and the negative neve y 
neu, " neither," " nor." 

3. Concessives, or such as- express a concession; as, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, 
licet, quanquam, quamvis, " though," " although." 

4. Adversatives, or such as express a condition ; as, at, atqui, autem, 
ceterum, verum, "but;" tdmen, attamen, veruntdmen, " yet," " although ;" 
vero, "truly." 

5. Causals, or such as express a cause or reason ; as, enim, etenim, nam,, 
nam que, "for;" qaando, quandoquidem, "whereas," "since;" quia, quippe, 
quod, " because ;" quoniam, quurn (or cum), " since ;" siquidem, " if," " indeed." 

6. Illatives, or such as express an inference; as, ergo, idcirco, proinde, 
qaapropter, qudre, quamobrem, quocirca, " therefore." 

7. Finals, or such as denote a purpose, object or result; as, ne, "lest;" 
quhx, " but that ;" quominus, " that not ;" ut, uti, " that." 

8. Conditionals, or such as express a condition; as, si, sin, "if;" nisi, or 
ni, " unless ;" dummodo, or dum mbdo, " provided that." 

9. Suspensives, or such as express doubt ; as, an, anne, annon, ne, nccne, 
num, utrum, " whether," " whether or not." 

Obs. 1. Some words, as, deinde, " thereafter ;" denique, " finally;" cceterum, 
"but," "moreover;" videlicet, "to wit;" &c'.) may be considered either as 
adverbs or conjunctions, according as their modifying or connecting power 
prevails. 

Obs. 2. Aulem, enim, vero, quoque, quidem, are never put first in a 
clause or sentence. Que, ve, ne, are always annexed to another word. 
They are called Enclitics, because, when placed after a long syllable, they 
make the accent incline to that syllable ; as, disci, trochi ; discive, trochive. 

Obs. 3. Conjunctions, like adverbs, are variously compounded with other 
parts of speech, and with each other ; as, atque, idcirco, ideo, namque, nec^ 
or ntque, cfec. 



204 SYNTAX. § 94 



PART THIRD. 



§ 94. SYNTAX. 

243.— Syntax is that part of Grammar which 
treats of the proper arrangement and connection 
of words in a sentence. 

1. A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense; 
as, Man is mortal. 

2. A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but not making 
complete sense ; as, in truth, in a word. 

3. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

4. A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation; as, Life is 
short. 

5. A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, Life, which is short, should be well employed. 

6. Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the pre- 
dicate. 

7. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. It is either in 
the nominati ve case before a finite verb, or in the accusative before the 
infinitive. 

8. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. It is either 
contained in the verb itself ; as, John reads ; or it consists of an intransi- 
tive verb, with an adjective or noun following it; as, Time is short ; they 
became poor ; he is a scholar. An. and Pr. Gr., 594. 

9. Both the subject and predicate may be attended by other words 
called adjuncts, which serve to restrict or modify the meaning of the word 
with which they may stand connected; as, "An inordinate desire of admi- 
ration, often produces a contemptible levity of deportment." 

10. Y/hen a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is sus- 
pended till the whole be finished, it is called a period. 

11. The analysis of sentences is the same in Latin as in 
English. See § 152, and " Analytical and Practical English 
Grammar/' 591—657. 



§ 95 syntax. 20c 

244.— § 95. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb in the indicative, subjunctive 
imperative, or infinitive mood ; and a subject expressed or understood. 

2. Every adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must have a sub 
stantive expressed or understood, with which it agrees. § 98 and 146. 

3. Every relative must have an antecedent, or word to which it refers 
and with which it agrees. § 99. 

4. Every subject-nominative has its own verb expressed or understood 
§ 100, 101, 102. The predicate-nominative is usually placed after th< 
substantive verb. § 103. 

5. Every finite verb, i. e. every verb in the indicative, subjunctive, oi 
imperative mood, has its own nominative, expressed or understood (§ 101 
102 j, and when the infinitive has a subject, it is in the accusative. § 145. Th( 
infinitive without a subject, does not form a sentence or proposition. § 143 

6. Every oblique case is governed by some word, expressed or under 
stood, in the sentence of which it forms a part ; or is used, without govern 
ment, to express certain circumstances. § 127. 

245.— SYNOPSIS OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 

7. The GENITIVE CASE is governed : 
1st. By substantives, § 106, Rules VI., VII, and VIII. 

2d. By adjectives, § 107. Namely, verbals, (fee, R. IX.; — partitives, R. X. 

— of plenty, or want, R. XL 
3d. By verbs, § 108. Namely, Sum, R, XIL— Misereor, <fcc R. XIIL- 

Eecordor, memmi, &c, R. XIV.; — of accusing, &c., § 122, R. XXVII. 

—of valuing, R. XX VIIL— Passive verbs, § 126, R I and II.- 

Impersonals, § 113, Exc. I and IL 
4th. By adverbs, § 135 ; and — 
5th. It is used to express circumstances of {lace. § 130, R. XXXV 

and XXXIX. 

8. The DATIVE is governed : 
1st. By substantives, § 110. 

2d. By adjectives of profit or disprofit, <fec, § 111, R. XVI. 

3d By verbs, § 112. Namely, Sum and its compounds, R. I. — Est, R. I 1 
— Certain compound verbs, R. III. and IV. — Verbs signifying t< 
profit or hurt, <fec, R. V. — Impersonate, § 113. — Verbs with tw< 
datives, § 114. — Verbs of comparing, <fcc, § 123. — Passive verb 
$126, R.\xXII. and XXXIII— Gerunds § 147. 

4Ui. By adverbs, § 135. — Interjections, §117 



206 SYNTAX. § 95 

9. The ACCUSATIVE is governed : 

1st. By transitive verbs signifying actively, § 116, R. XX. — To these 
belong recordor, memini, (fee., § 108. — Verbs governing two cases, 
§ 122; namely, of accusing, R. XXVII. ;— valuing, R. XXVIII.;— 
comparing, (fee, § 123; — asking and teaching, § 124; — loading, 
binding, (fee, § 125. — By impersonal verbs, § 113, Exc. II. and III 
— By passive verbs, § 126, R. IV. 

2d. By prepositions, § 136, R. XLVIIL, L., LI, LIL 

3d. It is used to express circumstances of limitation, § 128 ; — of place, 
. § 130;— of time, § 181 ;— of measure, § 132. 

4th. It is put before the infinitive as its subject, § 145. 

10. The VOCATIVE is governed by the interjections S 
heu, proline, (§ 117); or is used without government, to 
denote the person addressed. 

11. The ABLATIVE is governed : 
1st. By nouns, § 118. 

2d. By adjectives; viz. of plenty or want, § 107, R. XL — Dignus, in 

dignus, <fec., § 119. — The comparative degree, § 120. 
3d By verbs, § 121 ; viz. of plenty and scarceness, R. XXV. — Utor, 

abutor, (fee, R. XXVI. — Loading, binding, (fee, § 125. — Passive 

verbs, § 126, R. V. 
4th By prepositions, § 136, R, XLLX, LI, LIE 
5th. It is used without a governing word to express circumstances ; viz . 

of limitation, § 128 ; — of cause, manner, (fee, § 129 ; — of place, § 130 ; 

namely, the place in which, R. XXXVI. \from which, R. XXXVIII. 

and XXXIX.; — of time, § 131, R. XL. and XLL; — of measuve, 

§ 132, R. XLII, XLIIL— Of price, § 133. 
6th. It is used as the case absolute, § 146, R. LX. 

246.— CONSTRUCTION. OF MOODS. 

12. The Indicative, and the Imperative mood are used in- 
dependently, and without government. 

13. The Subjunctive Mood is, for the most part, dependent, 
and is used, 

1st. After certain conjunctions, § 140. 

2d. After the relative in certain connections, § 141, R. LV. 

3d. In oblique discourse, § 141, R. VI. 



§ 96, 97 SYNTAX. — SUBSTANTIVE. 207 

14. The Infinitive Mood is used, 

1st. Without a subject, or as a verbal noun, § 144, and R. LVL, LVII. 
2d. "With a subject in dependent and subordinate clauses, § 145, R. LVIIL 

15. Participles are construed as adjectives; Gerunds and 
Supines, as nouns, §§ 146, 147, 148. 

16. For the construction of adverbs and conjunctions, see 
§ 134, and § 149. 



§ 96. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

247. — The Parts of Syntax are commonly 
reckoned two : Concord, or agreement, and Gov- 
eminent. 

248. — Concord is the agreement of one word 
with another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

249. — Government is that power which one 
word has in determining the mood, tense,. or case, 
of another word. 

I CONCORD. 

250. — Concord, or agreement, is fourfold; viz.: 

1. Of a substantive with a substantive ; 

2. Of an adjective with a substantive; 

3. Of a relative with its antecedent ; 

4. Of a verb with its nominative, or subject. 



§ 97 A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

251. — Rule I. Substantives denoting the same 
person, or thing, agree in case; as, 

Cicero orator, Cicero the orator, 

Ciceronis cratoris, Of Cicero the orator, <fcc. 

Urbs Ai hence, The city Athens. 

Urbi Athenis, To the city Athens. 

252. — EXPLANATION.— Substantives thus used are said to be m 
ATPOsiTiox. The second substantive is added, to express some attribute, 



208 SYNTAX. — SUBSTANTIVE. § 97 

description, or appellative, belonging to the first, and must always be in the 
same member of the sentence; i. e., they must be both in the subject, or 
both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another, though denoting 
the same thing, is not in apposition with it, and does not come under this 
rule. § 103. 

This rule applies to all substantive words, such as personal and relative 
pronouns, adjectives used substantively, &c. 

Nouns in apposition are often connected, in English, by such particles as 
as, being, for, like, &c. ; as, Pater misit me comitem, " My father sent me as 
a companion," u /or a companion," &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

253. — Obs. 1. It is not necessary that nouns in apposition agree in 
gender, number, or person. In these respects, they are often different; as, 
Magnum pauperies opprobrium. Hor. Alexin delicias domlni. Vlrg. 

254. — Obs. 2. Two or more nouns in the singular, have a noun in ap- 
position in the plural ; as, M. Antonius, C. Cassius, tribun i plebis, " Marcus 
Antonius, Cains Cassius, tribunes of the people." Also if the singular 
nouns be of different genders, the plural in apposition will have the mas- 
culine rather than the feminine, if both forms exist ; as, Ad Ptolemceum et 
Cleopatra?n reges (not reglnas), Ugati missi. Lrv. 

255. — Obs 3. The substantive pronoun, having a word in apposition, 
is frequently omitted ; as, Consul dixi (scil. ego), " (I) the consul said." 

256. — Obs. 4. The possessive pronoun, being equivalent to the genitive 
of the personal has a noun in apposition w T ith it in the genitive ; as, pectus 
tuum, h o m t n i s simplicis. 

257. — Obs. 5. Sometimes the former noun denotes a whole, of which 
the noun in apposition expresses the parts ; as, Oner ar i 02, pars ad 
uEghnurum, — a lice adversus urbem ipsam deldtce sunt, u The ships of 
burden were carried, part to iEgiinurus, — others against the city itself." 
So, Q u i s que pro se queruntur, " lltey complain each for himself" 

258. — Obs. 6. A sentence or clause may supply the place of one of 
the substantives ; as, Cogitet oratorem institui, rem arduam, " Let him con- 
sider that an orator is training, a difficult matter." 

259. — Obs. 1. A demonstrative pronoun, in the neuter gender, some- 
times refers to a phrase, or a dependent clause in apposition, and, in con- 
struction, takes the place of that clause, &c, either as the subject or the 
object of a verb; as, Vetus nobilitas, majorum fortia facta, cognatorum et 
atjinium opes, multce clientelce, omnia hjec prcesidio adsunt. Sall., Jug., 80. 
Hoc txbi persuade as velim, me nihil omisisse. ExercUum supplicio cogere i 
id est dominum, non imperatorcm esse. Sall., Jug., 85. 

Exceptions. 

260. — Exc. 1. Sometimes the latter substantive is put in the genitive; 
as, fons Timavi, "the fountain of Timavus;" amnis Eridani, "the river 
Eridanus;" arbor fici, "the fig tree ;'" nomen Mercurii est mild. Words 
th js construed may be referred to 332. 



§ 98 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVE 209 

261. — Exc. 2. A proper name after the generic term nomen, or cog- 
nomen, sometimes elegantly takes the case of the person in the dative ; as, 
Nomen Arctv.ro est mihi, '•' I have the name Arcturus." Plaut. So, Cui 
nunc cognomen lulo additur. Virg. Cui Egerio inditum nomen. Liv 
Mansit Sil v i i s postea omnibus cognomen. Id. (433.) 

262. — Exc. 3. The name of a town in the genitive, denoting at a 
place may have a noun of the third declension or plural number, in op- 
position with it in the ablative, and vice versa; as, OorinthOAchaice 
urbe, " At Corinth, a city of Achaia." This construction depends on the 
rules, 548, 549. 



§ 98. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 

263. — Rule II. An adjective agrees with, its 
substantive in gender, number, and ease ; as, 

Bonus vir, a good man. Bonos viros, good men. 

Bona puella, a good girl. . Bonarum legum, of good laws. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Tins donis, with thy gifts. 

264. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to all adjectives, adjective 
pronouns, and participles ; and requires that they be in the same gender, 
number, and case, with their substantives. 250-2. It applies also, -when 
the substantive is in the subject, and the adjective in the predicate. 822. 
— The word " substantive," in this rule, includes personal and relative pro- 
nouns, and all words or phrases used as substantives. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

265. — Obs. 1. Two or more substantives singular, unless 
taken separately,- have an adjective plural ; as, 

Vir ci puer territi lilpo, A man and a boy terrified by a wolf. 

,.266. — Obs. 2. If all the substantives be of the same gender, 
the adjectives will be of that gender, as in the example above. 
But if the substantives are of different genders, the adjective 
takes the masculine rather than the feminine, and the feminine 
rather than the neuter ; as, 
Pater mihi, et mater mortui sunt, My father and mother are dead. Ter, 

267.— Obs. 3. But if they denote things without life, the 
adjective is commonly neuter. And, if some of the substantives 
refer to things with life, and others to things without life, the 
adjective is either neuter, or takes the gender of the thing or 
things with life ; as, 

Labor volupiasque sunt diss imili a Toil and pleasure are unlike in na- 
na/ urd, ture. 



210 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVE. § 98 

Naves et captlvi qt ce ad Chium The ships and captives which were 

capta sunt, taken at Chios. 

Numtdce atque mditaria signa obs- The JSTumidians and their military 

curdti su?it, standards were partially concealed. 

Also, the neuter is used frequently when the nouns denoting 
things are of the same gender ; as, Postquam Ira et avaritia 
imperio potentibra erant. Liv. 

268. — Obs. 4. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees 
with the nearest noun, and is understood to the rest; as, 
sociis et rege recepto, Virg., " Our companions and king 
being recovered." 

Note 1. — These observations may, and sometimes do, hold good, even 
when one or more of the substantives are in the ablative, and connected 
with the others by cum ; as, Filiam cum fllio accltos. 

269. — Obs. 5. When the substantive to which the adjective, 
or adjective pronoun, belongs may be easily supplied, it is 
frequently omitted, and the adjective, assuming its gender, 
number, and case, is often used as a substantive, and may 
have an adjective agreeing with it; as, 

Mortalis (homo), a mortal. llle (homo), he. 

Superi (dii), the gods above. Mi (homines), they. 

Dextra (manus), the right hand. Hie (liomo), he. 

Sinistra (manus), the left hand. Haze (femina), she. 

Omnia alia, all other (things). Familiaris mens (a?nlcus), my in- 

timate friend. 

270. — Obs. 6. The adjective, especially when used as a 
predicate, without a substantive or definite object, is used in 
the neuter gender ; as, 

Tr iste lupus stabulis, The wolf is grievous to the folds. 

Vacdre culpa est suave, To be free from blame is pleasant 

Labor vincit o m n i a, Labor overcomes all obstacles. 

271. — Obs. 7. Imperatives, infinitives, adverbs, clauses, and 
words considered merely as such, when used substantively, 
take an adjective in the neuter gender (30) ; as, 

Supremum vale dixit, Ovid, He pronounced a last farewell, 

Cr as istud quando venit, Mart., When does that to-morrow come ? 

Excepto quod non simul esses, That you viere not present being 

Hor., excepted. 



§ 98 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVE. 211 

272. — 0L.s. 8. A substantive is sometimes used as an adjective; as, 
populum late re gem (for regnantem), "a people of extensive sway;" 
nemo (for melius) miles Romanus, "no Roman soldier." Sometimes 
an adverb; as, Heri semper lenxtas (probably for lenitas semper 
or the like). Ter. So also adjectives are sometimes used as substantives , 
as, majOres, " ancestors;" amicus, "a friend ;" summum bbnum, '" the chief 
good " (thing) ; die. 

27o. — Obs. 9. These adjectives, primus, medhts, ultimus, extremus, in- 
funus, imus, summus, supremus, rehquus, ccetera, usually signify the "first 
part," the *■ middle part," &C, of any thing, and are placed before the sub- 
stantive; as, media nox, "the middle of the night;" summus mons, "the 

top of the mountain." 

274. — Obs. 10. Some adjectives denoting the time, or circumstances 
of an action are used in the sense of adverbs ; as, p r i o r venit, " he came 
first of the tico ;" p r b n u s cecidit, " he fell forward;" abiit sublimi s, " he- 
went on higli? 

2<5. — Obs. 11. Alius, though an adjective, is often used as a pr< 
and has this peculiarity of construction, that, when repeated with a different 
word in the same clause, it renders the one simple proposition to w 
it belongs equivalent to two, and it is to be so rendered ; thus, a I 
all' optimum, " one thing seems best to some, another seems best 

to others.'' So, duo reges, alius alia via, ille be/lo, hie pace, civitatem 
auxerunt, " two kings, one in one way and another in another ; '&e. Or the 
two simple sentences may be combined in a plural form; thus, "different 
things seemed best to different persons ;" " two kings, each in a different 
way ;" ket. The same is true when a word derived from alius, such as 
aliunde, editer, alio, is put with it in the same clause ; as, alii s ali u n de 
periculum est, "there is danger to one person from one source, and t'- 
other from another ;" or combined, "there is danger to different persons 
from different sources" 

276. — Obs. 12. When alius is repeated in a different clause, but in the 
same construction, the first is to be rendered "one," the second, "anoth 
if plural, " some," " others ;" as, ali u el est maledicere, ali u d accuse re. " it 
is one thing to rail at. another to accuse." Cic. Proferebant alii : 
pit ram, thus alii, "some brought forth purple, others incense." Instead 
of alii — alii, etc., in the plural, we have sometimes pars — alii; partim — 
alii ; sometimes alii — pars, alii — partim, " some — others," tfce. ; and some- 
times the first of the pair is omitted. 

This remark is applicable to alter, remembering only that alius' signifies 
one of many ; alter, one of two; as, quorum alter exercltum perdidit, alter 
vendidit. 

27 / . — -Obs. 13. Quisque, with the superlative, is equivalent to omnis in 
the singular or plural with the positive; thus, optimum quisque =om7tis 
bonus, or omnes boni, " every good man," or. " all good men." With two 
superlatives, it expresses a sort of reciprocal comparison; as, optimum 
quidque rarissvnum, " every thing is good in proportion as it is rare;" or 
" the best things are the rarest." 



212 SYNTAX. — ADJECTIVE. § 98 



Exceptions. 

278. — Exc. 1. An adjective is often put in a different gender 
or number from the substantive with which it is connected, 
tacitly referring to its meaning rather than to its form, 
or to some other word synonymous with it, or implied 

in it ; as, 

Latium Capuaque agro mulct ati, "Latiurn and Capua were deprived 
of their land," i. e., the people of Latium, cfec. ; Capita conjurationis virgis 
c ce s i, — " the heads (i. e., the leading men) of the conspiracy, &c." 

279. — Exc. 2. A collective noun in the singular, if its verb 
is plural, has an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of 
the individuals which form the collection ; as, 

Pars in flymen aeti sunt, "A part were forced into the river." 
Sometimes it takes the gender of the individual in the singular ; as, p a r s 
arduus fur it, &c. 

280. — Exc. 3. A plural noun or pronoun, used to denote one person, in 
comic writers, sometimes has an adjective or participle in the singular ; as, 
Nobis presente, " I being present." 

281. — Exc. 4. The adjective pronouns uterque, quisque, <£c„ in the 
singular, are often put with nouns in the plural, to intimate that the 
objects are spoken of individually and distributively ; as, Titer qu e edrvm 
ex castris exercitum educunt, "They lead forth, each of them, his army 
from the camp;" Qyisqye pro se queryntur, " They complain, each one 
for himself." Quisque, in the singular, not only distributes plural nouns, 
but is in the nominative when the plural to be distributed is in the 
ablative absolute ; as, Multis sibi quisqye imperium pet en tibus. 
Sall., Jug., 18; or in the accusative, as the subject of the infinitive; 

as, Affirmantes se qui s que patriam re lie tyros. Alius and 

alter are sometimes used in the same way; as, Mult a conjecta sunt 
aliud alio tempore. Obs. 11. In this construction, there is a kind of 
apposition. 257. 

2S2. — Exc. 5. When ipse qualifies a substantive pronoun in a reflexive 
seuse, in any oblique case governed by a verb or preposition, it commonly 
takes the case of the subject of the verb in the nominative or accusative, 
instead of the ease of the word which it qualifies; as, Se ipse inter- 
fecit, " He slew himself ;" Mi h i i p s e faveo, " I favor myself ;" Credis 
mi hi ipsum faverei "Do vou believe that I favor myself?" (to 
See 118-3, Note. 

288. — Exc. 6. The possessive pronoun, in any case, being equivalent 
to. and used for, the genitive of the substantive pronoun (121, Obs. 1), an 
adjective, qualifying the substantive pronoun implied in it, is put in the 
genitive ; as, In nostro om n i u m fletu t " Whilst all of us are in tears ;" 
M e n. m soli us vitium, " The fault of me alone ;" No stri ipso rum 
liberi. " Our own children ;" Mea scrivta thnentis. 



SYNTAX. — RELATIVE. 2 J 3 



§ 99. THE RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. 

284. — Rule III. The relative qui, quce, quod, 
agrees with its antecedent in gender, number, and 
person ; as, 

Ego qui scrlbo, I who "write. 

Tu qui legis, Thou who readest. 

Vir qui loquitur, The man who speaks. 

Viri qui loquuntur, The men who speak. 

285. — EXPLANATION. — The antecedent is the noun or pronoun going 
before the relative to which it refers. Sometimes, however, the relative and 
its clause are placed before the antecedent and its clause. 

The infinitive mood or a part of a sentence is sometimes the antecedent, 
in which case the relative must be in the neuter gender. 

OBSERVATION'S. 

286. — Obs. 1. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree 
with the antecedent, hut with the same word expressed or 
understood after the relative, and with which, like the adjec- 
tive, it agrees in gender, number, and case, as well as person, 
thus, diem dlcnnt, qua (die), &c, " they appoint a clay, on 
which (day)," &c. Hence, in connecting the antecedent and 
relative clause, the following variety of usage occurs, viz : 

1st The word to which the relative refers, is commonly expressed in the 
antecedent clause, and not with the relative; as. Vir sapit qui 
pauca loquitur, " He is a wise man, who speaks little." 

2d. It is often elegantly omitted in the antecedent clause, and expressed 
with the relative, especially when the relative clause stands first; 
as, In quem prlmuni egressi sunt locum, Troja vocdtur, i. e., locus 
in quem, <tc. 

3d. Sometimes, when greater precision is required, it is expressed in both ; 
as, Erant omm.no itinera duo, qui bus itineribus domo exi.re 
possent. Instead of the first substantive, the relative sometimes 
takes with it a substantive explanatory of the first ; as, Cum venis- 
sem ad A m a n u m, qui mon s, <fcc. — No?i longe a Tolosatium finibus 
sunt, a a ce civ it as {Tolosatium) est in prrovincia ; for, qui sunt, etc. 
— Ante comitia, quod tern pus haud longe aberat ; for, quce comi- 
tia haud, <fcc 

4 th. When the reference is of a general nature, and there is no danger of 
obscurity, the word to which the relative refers is understood iu 
both clauses ; as, sunt quos juvat collegisse, i. e. sunt (homines) quos 
(h o mines) juvat, efce. ; — non habeo quod te accusem, i. e. non habeo 
id quod te accasem. 492. 
Note. — The place of the antecedent is sometimes supplied by a demon 



214 SYNTAX. — RELATIVE. § 99 

strati ve pronoun in the clause following ; as, de qua re audlvi, e a m tibi 
narrabo. In the clause preceding the relative, the demonstrative has 
sometimes the force of talis, " such ;" and the relative, that of the corre- 
sponding qudlis, " as ;" — the two implying a sort of comparison ;. as, Itdque 
ego i s sum in ilium, que m tu me esse vis, " Therefore, I am towards him, 
such as you wish me to be.'" Cic. 

To this construction may be referred such expressions as, qui iuus est 
amor, equivalent to, pro eo amore qui tuus est amor, " such is your love," 
literally, " in accordance with such love as yours is ;" — quae tua est bene- 
volentia, " such is your benevolence," where the demonstrative is, ea, id, 
in the sense of "such," (123-2, b), is supplied with the antecedent un- 
derstood. 

287. — Obs. 2. a. The antecedent is sometimes implied in a preceding 
word ; as, omnes laudare fortunas me as qu i haberem, &c, " all were 
praising my fortune who had," &c, i.e. fortunas mei qui; the possessive 
mean being equivalent to the genitive of ego. 121, Obs. 1. Concur aver e 
panel contra rempublicam, de qua (scil. conjuratioue, implied in conjura- 
vere) quam brevissime polero cllcam, " a few entered into a conspiracy 
against the republic, concerning which," &c. 

b. The relative sometimes refers, not to a particular word, but to the whole 
antecedent proposition, or the idea expressed by it, in which case it takes 
the neuter gender ; as, Tu dmas virtutem, quod (i. e. quam rem) valde laudo. 
PostremQj quod difficillvmum inter mortales, gloria invidiam vicisti. Sall., 
Jug. Sometimes id is placed before quod referring to the same proposi- 
tion; as, Slve, id quod constat, Ptaionis studiosus audiendi fuit. Cic. 

288. — Obs. 3. When a relative refers to one or two nouns, denoting 
the same object, but of different genders, it may agree with either ; as, 
F lumen est Arar quod, <fcc. Here quod agrees with flumen. Ad flumen 
Ossum perventum est, qui, (fee. Here qui agrees with Ossum. 

289. — Obs. 4. When a word of a preceding proposition, or the pro- 
position itself, is explained by a substantive after esse, dicere, vocdre, 
habere, 4c.-, the relative (or demonstrative) pronoun between them, often 
takes, by attraction, the gender and number of the explanatory substantive 
following; as, Thebce ipsce quod Bosotice caput est. Liv. Idem velle 
et idem nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est. Sall. But if the latter 
substantive is distinctive only, the relative follows the general rule ; as, 
genus hominum quod vocatur Helotes ; — ad eum locum, q uem Amani- 
cas pylas vocant, pervenit. 

Also the participles of such verbs, as well as the relative, take the 
gender and number of the predicate substantive when near it, or imme- 
diately after it ; as, non omnia error s t ultiti a est die en da (for dicen- 
dus) ; — gens universa Ve n e 1 1 ap pell at i. 

290. — Obs. 5. An adjective which properly belongs to the antecedent, 
is sometimes placed in the relative clause, agreeing with the relative. 
This is the case, especially if the adjective be a numeral, a comparative, 
or superlative; as, inter jocos, quos inconditos jaciunt, for jocos incouditos, 
quos, <tc, "amidst the rude jests which they utter;" — node, quam in terris 
ultimam egit, for node ultima, quam, <fcc, " the last night which he spent 
upon earth." 



§ 99 SYNTAX. — RELATIVE. 215 

291. — Obs. 6. When a relative refers to two or more antecedents taken 
together, it agrees with them in gender and number, iu ail respects as the 
adjective does with several substantives, as stated 265, 266. But, 

If the antecedents are of different persons, the relative plural takes 
the first person rather than the second, and the second person rather than 
the third. 

292. — Exc. 1. The relative, sometime:, takes the gender and number, 
not of the antecedent noun, but of some one synonymous with it or implied 
in it ; as, earum rerum quit mort ales prima putan-t, "of those things which 
men deem most important." Here quce seems to agree with negotia, con- 
sidered synonymous with rcrvin. — Daret ut catenis fatcde monstrum quce. 
The antecedent is monstrum, but quce agrees with Cleopatra, the monster 
intended. 

293. — Obs. 7. The relatives quicunque and quisquis are sometimes 
used instead of qui when a general or indefinite term is expressed or 
understood with the antecedent; as, quce sanari poterunt, qudcunque 
ratione sanabo, equivalent to omni ratione qudcunque {possum), "what 
can be cured, I will cure by every means I can." 

294. — This construction corresponds to that of the Greek oattQ (Gr. 
Gram., § 135, 7), and, like it, these relatives often represent two cases; as, 
quoscunque dc te queri audivi, quacunque potui ratione placavi. Here, 
quoscu?tque is both the object of placavi, and the subject of queri; and 
quacunque is equivalent to omni ratione qua ratione. — Quidquid tetigerat 
aurum Jiebat. Here quidquid stands both as the nominative to jiebat 
and the accusative after tetigerat, and is equivalent to omne quod teti- 
gerat, tfcc, 

295. — Obs. 8. In the beginning of a sentence, or clause connected with 
what precedes, not by the relative itself, but by quum (cum), si, autem, 
quoniam, or other conjunctive term expressed or understood, the relative 
assumes the character of a personal or demonstrative pronoun, and, as 
such, refers to some word, clause, or circumstance, already expressed; 
thus, * 

1st. When the relative thus used stands instead of its noun, it is equivalent 
to et Me, et hie, et is, et illi, <fcc, and may be rendered " and he," 
" and she," " and they,"' <£c. ; as, qui quum admitteret, " and when 
he admitted;" — ad quern quum venissent, " and when they had 
come to him ;" — q u cm ut vidit, " as soon as he saw him? 

2d. When the relative thus used stands with its substantive, or has it 
understood, it is to be translated, as a demonstrative, by this, that, 
these, those, commonly preceded by and; as, qui I eg at i quum 
missi esscnt, "and when these ambassadors had been sent ; : — ad 
qua rum initium si I varum quum Ccesar pervenisset, " and when 
Caesar had come to the beginning of these woods ;" — quam quum 
Romanorum dux dare uollet, "and when the Roman general would 
not grant ^A£s"(scil. pdeem, " peace "). 

296. — To this construction belongs quod, in the beginning of a sentence 
(apparently for propter quod, or ad quod), referring to something pre 
viously stated, and meaning •' on account of," " with respect to,' " as to, &c, 



216 SYNTAX. — RELATIVE. § 99 

this thing ;" as, quod diis gratias habeo, " wherefore (i. e. on account of 
this thing), I give thanks to the gods ;'' — q u o d scrlbis (Cic), " as to what 
you write." 

CASE OF THE RELATIVE. 

297. — Obs. 9. The relative, in respect of case, is always to 
be considered as a noun and subject to the rules which de- 
termine the case of nouns. 

298. — Exc. 2. The relative, after the manner of the Greek, is some- 
times attracted into the case of its antecedent; as, Cum agas aliqicid 
eorum quoru in consuesti. <fec, for eormn quce consuesti, " When you do 
any cf those things which you have been accustomed to do f Raptim 
quibus quisque poterat eldtis, for (iis) qile quisque, (fee, " Those things 
which each one could, being hastily snatched up." 

299. — Exc. 3. The antecedent is sometimes attracted into the case 
of the relative ; as, II r b em quam statuo vestra est, for urbs quam 
statuo, <tc, (i The city which I am building is yours." 

These are Greek constructions seldom used by Latin writers. See 
Greek Gr., § 135, Exc. 9, 10. 

300. — Obs. 10. The relative adjectives quot, quantus, quails, 
used in comparisons, and commonly rendered "as," are often 
construed in a manner similar to the relative (286), having 
their redditives, or corresponding adjectives tot, tantus. talis, 
expressed or understood in the antecedent clause; as, Tan tee 
' miiltitudiuis quant am capit urbs, "Of as great a multitude as 
the city contains; 57 Fades (talis), qudlem decet esse sororum, 
t; The features, such as those of sisters ought to be." Virg. 

a. The noun, as well as the redditive, is very often omitted 
in the antecedent clause, and expressed in the relative clause 
(286-2d) ; as, Quanta potuit celeritate cucurrit, changed to the 
common form, is Tanta celeritate quanta potuit, cucurrit, 
" He ran with as much speed as he could." In this way, are to 
be explained such clauses as Quantum importunitatis habent, 
"Such arrogance have they," in full form, Pro tan to im» 
portunitatis q u a n turn habent. 

b. When the relative adjective and its redditive refer to 
different substantives, each agrees with its own. But among 
the poets, the relative sometimes agrees with the substantive 
in the antecedent clause, and not with that in its own. 

Sometimes the redditive is understood, and sometimes the 
relative. 

Note 1. Instead of the relative adjectives quot, quantus, quozlis, the con- 
junctions ac y atque, ut, and the relative qui, quce, quod, in the sense of " as," 



§ 100, 101 SYNTAX. — NOMINATIVE CASE. 217 

are sometimes used in comparative expressions ; as, Honos tali populi 
Romani voluntdte. . paucis est delcdus ac mild. Cic. 

Note 2. — When quot, quantus, qualis are used as interrogates, they 
have no corresponding antecedent term. 

301. — Exc. 4. Instead of the ordinary construction, the 
relative adjective, with its noun, is sometimes attracted into 
the case of the relative pronoun understood, as in the follow- 
ing sentence : Si hominibus bondrum rerum tanta cur a esset, 
quanto studio petunt, Sall., Jug.; instead of quantum est 
studium quo aliena petunt: — unless this be a case of anaco- 
luthon, the latter part of the sentence being expressed as if 
the former, had been, Si homines bonas res peterent, quanto 
studio, &c, i. e. 5 tanto studio quanto, &e. 300, a. 



§ 100. CONSTRUCTION OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

302. The nominative case is used, 

1. To express the subject of a proposition; 

2. In apposition with another substantive in the nominative 

(§ 97), or predicated of it (§ 103) ; 

3. In exclamations ; as, O vir for tis atque amicus! 



§ 101. THE VERB AND ITS NOMINATIVE. 

303. — Rule IV. A Verb agrees with its nomi- 
native in number and person ; as, 

Ego lego, I read. Nos legimus, "We read. 

Tu scrlbis, Thou writest. Vos scribitis, Ye write. 

llle loquitur, He speaks. llli loquuntur, They speak. 

304. — EXPLANATION.— The subject of a finite verb, being a noun, a 
pronoun, an adjective used as a noun, or a gerund, is put in the nominative 
case. The subject may also be an infinitive mood or part of a sentence. To all 
of these the rule applies, and requires that the verb be in the same number 
and person as the subject, or nominative. For person, see 35, and 118-1, 2. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

o0o. — Obs. 1. The nominatives Igo, nos, of the first person; and tu t 
vos, of the second, are generallv omitted being obvious from the tern 

10 



218 SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. § 102 

tion of the verb ; also the nominative of the third person, when it is an in- 
definite word, or may be easily supplied from the context ; as, ferunt % 
" they say ;" (fee. 

306. — Obs. 2. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses 
the state of the weather, or an operation of nature ; as, fulgurat, " it light- 
ens f pluit, " it rains ;" ningit, a it snows." 

307. — Obs. 3. Impersonal verbs are usually considered as without a 
nominative. Still, they will generally be found to bear a relation to some 
circumstance, sentence, clause of a sentence, or infinitive mood, similar to 
that between a verb and its nominative; as, delect at me studere, " it delights 
me to study," i. e. " to study delights me ;" — miserei me tui, " I pity you," 
i. e. conditio, or fortuna tui miseret one, " your condition excites my pity." 
662. 

308. — Obs. 4. The verb is sometimes omitted when the nominative is 
expressed, and sometimes when it is understood; as, nam ego Polydorus 
(sc stun), u for I am Polydorus;'' — omnia prmcldra vara (sc. sunt), "all 
excellent things are rare ;" — turn ille (sc. r esp o ndi t), u then he replied;" 
— verum hactenus4io2C (sc. dixtmu s). 

309. — Obs. 5. When the subject is an infinitive, or a clause of a sen 
tence, the verb is in the third person singular ; and, if a compound tense 
the participle is put in the neuter gender ; as, in cert u m est quam longa 
nostrum cujusque vita futura sit, "how long any of us shall live is uncer- 
ta ;/ n v 

310. — Obs. 6. The nominative is sometimes found with the infinitive, 
in which case ccepit or cceperunt, or some other verb, according to the 
sense, is understood ; as, omnes invidere mihi, " every one envied me." 
The infinitive with the nominative before it, is so common in historical 
narrative, that it is called the historical infinitive. Thus used, it is trans- 
lated as the imperfect or the perfect indefinite, for which tenses it seems 
to be used, and with which it is sometimes connected. 669. 

311 . — Obs; 7. Videor, in the sense of " I seem," is used throughout as 
a personal verb, but is often rendered impersonally: as, videor esse liber, 
"it seems that /am free," literally, " I seem to be free." — Followed by the 
dative of a person, it means to think, fancy, suppose, with reference to the 
word in the dative, as the subject in English; as, videor tibi esse, "you 
think /ki i am," literally, " I seem to you to be;" — tu videris mihi, "I 
think that you ;" — videor Mi, " he thinks that I ;" <fee. In the third person 
singular, followed by an infinitive mood or connected clause, it is rendered 
impersonally, but still has the infinitive or clause for its subject. See 413. 



§ 102. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 

I. Of agreement in Number and Person. 

312. — Rule I. Two or more substantives sin- 
gular, taken together, have a verb in the 



§ 102 SYNTAX. — OBSERVATIONS. 219 

plural ; taken separately, the verb is usually 
singular ; as, 

(Taken together,) 
Furor iraque mentem prcecipitant, Fury and rage hurry on my mind. 

(Taken separately,) 
Si Socrates aut Antistltenes diceret, IfSocratesor Antisthenes should say 

313. — Obs. 1. To both parts of this rule, however, and especially to 
the first, there are many exceptions. If one of the nominatives is plural, 
the verb is commonly plural. But sometimes the verb agrees with the 
nominative nearest it, and is understood to the rest, especially when each 
of the nominatives is preceded by et or turn, or when they denote things 
without life ; as, Mens exim, et ratio, et consilium, in seuibus e s t. 

When the nominatives are disjunctively connected by aut, neque, <fec, 
the verb is sometimes plural ; and it is always so, when the substantives 
are of different persons ; as, Quod neque $go, neque Ccescut hablti es s e- 
in us. Cic. Ilcec si neque ego, neque tu fecimus. Ter. 

314. — Obs. 2. A substantive in the nominative singular, connected 
with another in the ablative by cum, may have a plural verb ; as, Re mo 
c u m f rat re Quiri n u s jura dab u n t. 

315. — Obs. 3. VvTien the nominatives are of different persons, the verb 
is commonly plural, and takes the first person rather than the second, and 
the second rather than the third ; as, Si tu et Tullia valet i s, ego et 
Cicero v a I em u s, " If you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well." 

But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest nominative, and is un- 
derstood to the rest, and always so, when the verb has different modifica- 
tions with each nominative ; as, Ego misere, t u feliciter vivi s. 

316. — Rule II. 1. A collective noun expressing 
many as one whole, lias a verb in the singular ; as, 

P opulus me sibilat, The people hiss at me. 

S e n a tus in curiam v enit, The Senate came into the Senate- 

house. 

2. But when it expresses maay as individuals, 
the verb must be plural ; as, 

Pars epulis oner ant mensas, Part load the tables with food. 

Tu rb a r u u n t, The crowd rush. 

Ve n i u n t I eve vulgus eunt que, The fickle populace come and go. 

317. — Obs. 4. To both parts of this rule, there are also exceptions, 
and in some cases, it seems indifferent whether the verb be in the singular 
or plural ;' sometimes both are joined with the same word ; as, Tu rba ex 
to loco dilabeb atur, refracturosque carcerem mi nab antu r. 

3 1 S. — Obs. 5. Uterque, quisque, pars pars, alius — alius, and 

alter .... alter, on account of the idea of plurality involved, frequently have 



220 SYNTAX. — PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. § 108 

the verb in the plural. This construction may be explained on the prin 
ciple mentioned 281, where see examples; or 257. 



§ 103. THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 

319. — Rule V. The predicate substantive or 
adjective, after a verb, is put in the same case as 
the subject before it; as, 

Ego sum discipulus, I am a scholar. 

Ta voca7'is Joannes, Thou art called John. 

Ilia incedit reglna, She walks (as) a queen. 

320. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the nominative before the 
verb is the subject^ thing spoken of; the nominative after it, is the predicate, 
or the thing asserted of the subject. The verb is the copula connecting the 
one with the other, and is usually a substantive verb (187), an intransitive 
verb, or a passive verb of naming, judging, appointing, &c, which, from its 
use, is called a copulative verb. 

This rule applies to the accusative and dative before, and after, the infinitive 
of copulative verbs. See Obs. 5, 6, 7, 8, below. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

321. — Obs. 1. Any copulative verb between two nominatives of dif- 
ferent numbers, commonly agrees in number with the former, or subject; 
sls,Dos est decern talent a, " Her dowry is ten talents." Ter. Omnia 
pontus erant, " All was sea." Ovid. But sometimes with the latter oi 
predicate; as, Ama?itium tree, amoris int eg ratio est, "The quarrels 
of lovers is a renewal of love." 

a. So also, w T hen the nouns are of different genders, an adjective, adjec- 
tive pronoun, or a participle, in the predicate, commonly agrees with the 
subject of the verb ; as, Oppidum app ell at u m est Possidonia :;— - 
but sometimes with the predicate; as, Non r o?nnis error stnltitia 
die en da est. Cic. 

6. The verb esse sometimes takes an adverb in the predicate, where, in 
English, an adjective is commonly used ; as, omnia mala abunde er ant, 
' — were abundant ;" — Romanos laxius fu turos, " that the Romans 
could be more negligent ;" — ca res frustra fuit, "that was of no 
waih" 

322. — Obs. 2. When the predicate is an adjective, adjective pronoun, 
or participle without a substantive, it agvees with the subject before the 
verb according to Rule II (263) ; except as noticed in the same section. 
Obs. 6 (270). 

323. — Obs. 3. When the subject is of the second person, and the voca- 
tive stands before the verb, the adjective or participle will usually be in 



§104 SYNTAX. — GOVERNMENT. 221 

the nominative, according to the rule ; as, esto t u, Ccesar, a m ic u a ; but 
sometimes it is put in the vocative ; as, typhus, Hector, ab oris erpec 
tcite rents (Vihg.), for expectatus. Hence the phrase, Made virilde esto, 
for m act us. 

324. — 06.9.4. The noun opus, commonly rendered " needful," is often 
used as a predicate after sum ; as, dux nobis op u s est, ' k a leader is 
wanted by us." 

1. — Such expressions as audlvi hoc puer, — rempubfacam defend). 
adolescens, — sapiens nil fdcit invltus, belong more properly to Rules I. and 
II. than to this (251 and 263). 

325. — Obs. 5. The accusative or dative before the infinitive under this 
Rule, requires the same case after it in the predicate ; as, 

Novvmus te esse fort em , We know that thou art b rave. 

Mi hi negl i gent i lion esse licet, I am not allowed to be negligent. 

Note 2. — In this construction, the infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, 
novzmus te for tern, for esse fortem. 

32(3. — Obs. 6. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the 
subject of the preceding verb, it is often omitted, in which ease the pre- 
dicate after the infinitive is in the nominative agreeing with the precedjnp 
subject, or in the accusative agreeing with the subject of the infinitive 
understood ; as, cupio dici doctus, or cupio did docium, i. e. me did docfmn, 
" I desire to be called learned." The first of these is a Greek construction, 
and seldom used by Latin prose writers. See Gr. Gram., § 116, 3. 

327. — Obs. 1. When the infinitive of such verbs has a dative before it, 
,t may be followed either by a dative or an accusative ; as, licet m i h i e*ssc 
bed to ; or, licet m i h i esse beatum,"! may be happy." In the first case, 
beaio agrees with mihi ; in the second, beatum agrees with me, to be sup- 
plied as the subject of esse. Sometimes, when the sentence is indefinite, 
the dative also is understood; as, licet esse beatum (sc. ahcui), " one may 
be happy." The first of these forms also is a Greek construction. See 
Gr. Gram., g 175, Obs. 5. 

328. — Obs. 8. This variety of case after the infinitive, is admissible 
onlv with the nominative, dative, and accusative. The other cases before 
the" infinitive have the accusative after it, agreeing with the subject of the 
infinitive understood ; as, interest omnium (s e) esse bonos 



329.— § 104. GOVERNMENT. 

1. Government is the power which one word has over another depend 
ing upon it, requiring it to be put in a certain case, mood, or tense. 

2. The words subject to government are nouns and verbs. 

3. The words governing or affecting these in their case, mood, or tense, 
sn nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and words indeclinable. 



222 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. § 106 

4. To the Syntax of nouns, belongs all that part of Syntax relating to 
the government of case. Every thing else in government belongs to the 
Syntax of the verb, § 137, et seq. 



SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 

330. — In this part of Grammar, under the term noun or substantive, it 
comprehended every thing' used as such ; namely, nouns, personal pronouns, 
adjective pronouns used personally, adjectives without substantives, ge- 
runds, together with infinitives, and substantive clauses used as nouns. 

The construction of the oblique cases depends, in general, upon the 
particular ideas expressed by the cases themselves, as they are stated 
No. 50, or as they are mentioned hereafter, under each case. 





1 105. CONSTRUCTION OF THE GENITIVE. 

331.— T^he Genitive, as its name imports, with the meaning of the 
word, connects the idea of origin, and hence that of property or possession. 
It is used, in general, to limit the signification of another word, with 
which it is joined, by representing it as something originating with, 
possessed by, or relating to, that which the genitive or limiting word ex- 
presses ; and it is said to be governed by the word so limited, i, e., the 
word limited requires the word limiting it to be put in the Genitive cuse. 

The Genitive is governed by Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs; and also is 
used to express circumstances of place, quantity, or degree. 



§ 106. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY NOUNS. 

332. — Rule VI. One substantive governs an- 
other in the genitive, when the latter substantive 
limits the signification of the former ; as, 

Amor gloriaz, The love of glory. 

Lex naturte, The law of nature. 

333. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the two substantives must 
be of different signification, and the one used to restrict the meaning of the 



§ 106 SYNTAX.— GENITIVE. 223 

other. Thus, in the first example, amor, alone, means "love," iu general, 
but the term gloria, joined with it, restricts its meaning here to a particular 
object, "glory,'' and so of other examples. . 

N. B. When a noun is limited by another of the same signification, it is 
put in^he same case by Rule I (251). 

OBSERVATIONS. 

334. — Obs. 1. When the governing noun expresses a feeling or act, &c, 
inherent in, or exercised by, the noun governed in the genitive, the genitive 
is said to be subjective or active. But when the governing noun denotes 
something of which the noun governed is the object, the genitive is then 
said to be objective or passive. Thus, in the phrase providentia Dei, the 
genitive is necessarily subjective or active, because providentia expresses 
an act or operation of which God is the subject, and of which he cannot be 
the object. On the other hand, in the phrase timor Dei, '' the fear of God," 
the genitive Dei is necessarily objective or passive, because tlmor denotes 
a feeling in some other subject of which God is the object, and cannot be 
the subject. Sometimes the meaning of both substantives is such, that the 
genitive may be either active or passive ; thus, when the expression amor 
Dei means the love which God has to us, Dei is active or subjective ; but 
when it means the love which we have to God, Dei is passive or objective. 
In such cases, the sense in which the genitive is used must be determined 
by the author's meaning. 

335. — Obs. 2. Hence it often happens that a noun governs two sub- 
stantives, one of which limits it subjectively, and the other objectively ; as, 
Agauteinnonis belli gloria, '-Agamemnon's glory in war." Nep. Here, 
Agamemnonis limits gloria subjectively, and belli limits it objectively 
So, lllius admiuistralio provincial. Cic. 

336. — Obs. 3. The governing noun is often omitted, but only, however, 
when the expression itself readily suggests the noun to be supplied ; as. 
ad Didnce, sc. cedent ; or when it can be readily supplied from the preced- 
ing or following words. 

337. — Obs. 4. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronoun governed 
by the noun, it is more common to use the possessive adjective pronoun 
agreeing with it ; as, meus pater, rather than pater mei. So also, instead 
of the genitive of a noun, a possessive adjective is sometimes used ; as, 
causa regia, for regis causa ; her ills Jilius, forJHius hiri. 

338. — Obs. 5. The dative is often used instead of the genitive, to limit 
a noun as to its object; o.s,fratri cedes, for fratris, " the house of my 
brother ;" — proem dium reis, " a defence to the accused." For this construc- 
tion, see 380 and 381. 

339. — Rule VII. A substantive added to an- 
other, to express a property or quality belonging 
to it, is put in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir sum-in ce prudent ice, or summd prudentid, A man of great wisdom. 
Puer probce indoles, or probd indole, A boy of a good disposition. 



224 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. § 106 

340. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the latter substantive in the 
genitive or -ablative must denote apart or property* of the former, otherwise 
it does not belong to this rule. The latter substantive, also, has commonly 
an adjective joined with it as in the preceding examples, though this is not 

essential to the rule 'j and sometimes it is found without it ; as, Homo nihili. 

* 

341. — Obs. 6. There is no certain rule by which to determine when 
the genitive is to be used, or when the ablative, though in some phrases 
we find the genitive only is used ; as, vir imi subsellii, " a person of the 
lowest rank;" — homo nullius stipendii, *'a man of no experience in war" 
(Sall.) ; — magni formica laboris, <fec. In others, the ablative only ; as, E% 
bono ammo, " Bo of good courage." Sometimes both are used in the same 
sentence ; as, adohscens eximid spe, summce virtuiis. In prose, the ablative 
is more eoirmon than the genitive. ', 

342. — Obs. 7. Sometimes, instead of the construction under this rule, 
the adjective is put with the former substantive ; as, Vir gravitate et pru~ 
dentid prcestans. Cic. So, Vir prcestan tis ingenii, — prcestanii in gen io, — prce- 
stans ingenio, and (poetically) — prcestans ingenii, are all used. And some- 
times, when the adjective takes the case of the former substantive, the 
latter substantive, especially by the poets, is, by a Greek construction, 
put in the accusative instead of the genitive or ablative ; as, miles fractus 
membra, instead of membris; — os humer osque siynilis deo, instead 
of ore humerisque similis deo. For this use of the accusative, see 538. 

Adjectives taken as Substantives. 

343. — Rule VIII. An adjective in tlie neuter 
gender, without a substantive, governs the geni- 
tive ; as, 

Multum pecuniae, Much money. 

Id negotii, That business. 

344. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the adjective, without a 
substantive expressed, is regarded as a substantive, and so, capable of being 
limited by' the genitive, as under Rule VI (832). - 

345. — Obs. 8. The adjectives thus used have a partitive character, 
and are generally such as signify quantity ; multum, plus, plurimum, tan- 
turn, quantum; — the pronouns hoc, id, Mud, istud, quod, quid, with its 
compounds ; — also sununum, ultimum, extremum, dimidium, medium, 
aliud, <tc. To these maybe added nihil, "nothing," which is always a 
substantive; and the adverbs satis, par urn, abunde, affatim, and sometimes 
largiter, in a substantive sense; as, nihil pretii, satis eloquent! te, sapientioe 
parum. 595. 

This rule applies also to several neuter adjectives in the plural, used in 
a partitive sense ; as, angusta vidrum, " the narrow parts of the road •;' 
optica locorum ; antlqua feeder um ; cuncta camporum ; etc. 

Kote. — Such adjectives, followed by a genitive, are always either in the 



§ 107 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. 225 

nominative or accusative ; and, when in the accusative, are not dependent 
on a preposition. 

340. — Obs. 9. Most of these adjectives may have their substantivea 
with which they agree ; but the more common construction is with the 
genitive; as, tantum spei, " so much hope;" — quid mulieris? "what kind 
of a 'woman?" — aliquid formce ; quid hoc rei est? And sometimes the 
genitive after these neuters is the genitive of an adjective used as a sub- 
stantive ; as, aliquid novi, tantum boni, Ac. 

34/. — Ohs. 10. Quod and quicquid, followed by a genitive, include 
the idea of universality; as, quod agri, " what of land," i. e. "all the land ;" 
quicquid civium, "whatever of citizens," i. e. "all the citizens;" quicquid 
deorum, " all the gods." 

348. — Obs. 11. Opus and iisus, signifying " need," sometimes govern 
the genitive; as, Argenti opus fuit, " There was need of money" Liv. 
P rocemii non semper u&u* est, " There is not always need of an intro- 
duction." Quinct. In general, these words govern the ablative. 456 



§ 107. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

349. — Rule IX. Verbal adjectives, or such, as 
imply an operation of mind, govern the genitive ; 

as, 

Avulus glorice, Desirous of glory. 

Ignarus fraudis, Ignorant of fraud. 

Jlemor benefciorum, Mindful of favors. 

350. — EXPLANATION.— The genitive in this construction, as in § 106, 
is used to limit the application of the general term or adjective by which it is 
governed, and may be rendered by of, or, in respect of, prefixed ; thus, in the 
first example, avid us expresses the possession of desire generally ; the genitive 
gloria: limits it to a certain object, " glory;" and so of the other examples. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

351. — Obs. 1. Adjectives governing the genitive under this 
rule, are : 
1st. Verbals in AX; as, capax, edax, ferax, fugax, pervicax, tenax, <fec 

2d. Participles in XS and TUS ; as, avians, appetens, cupien^. patit ns, 

impatieiis, sitieus, colens, fug/ens, intelligent metuens, temperans 4 

pSrans; consultuSj dcctus, expertu.s, inexpertus, insuetus, in 

SOllLuS, &G. 

10* 



226 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. § 107 

3d. Adjectives denoting various affections of the miDd ; such as, 1. Desire 
and Disgust; as, avarus, avidus, cupidus, studiosus, fastidiosus, &c, 
with many other verbals in idus and osus. % Knowledge and 
Ignorance ; as, callidus, certus, conscius, gndrus, perltus, prudens, <fcc; 
— igndrus, incertus, inscius, imprudens, imperltus, rudis, <kc. 3. Me- 
mory or Forgetfulness ; as, memor, immemor, <kc. 4. Care aud 
Negligence; as, anxius, curiosus, solicitus, providus, diligens ; — in- 
curiosus, securus, negligens, <fcc. 5. Fear and Confidence ; as, pa- 
vidus, timidus, trepidus ; — impavidus, inteiritus, <fcc. 6. Guilt and 
Innocence; as, noxius, reus, suspectus, compertus ; — innoxius, in- 
nocens, iusons, (fee. 

4th. To these, may be added many other adjectives of similar signification, 
which are limited by, or govern such genitives as animi, ingenii, 
mentis, tree, niilitice, belli, laboris, rerum, cevi, morum, and fidei. 

352. — Obs. 2. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and parti- 
ciples, but usually with some difference of meaning ; as, patiens algori.% 
" capable of bearing cold ;" patiens algorem, " actually bearing cold ;" 
dmans virtutis, ' k loving virtue," — spoken of the disposition; dmans virtu- 
tem, " loving virtue," — spoken of the act. So also, doctus grammatical, 
" skilled in grammar ;" doctus grammaticam, " one who has studied gram- 
mar." 

353. — Obs. 3. Many of these adjectives vary their construc- 
tion ; so that, instead of the genitive, they sometimes take 
after them, 

1st. An infinitive clause; as, Certus ire, "determined to go." Ovid. Can- 
tare perlt i. Virg. Anxius quid opus facto sit. Sall. 

2d. An accusative with a preposition ; as, avidior ad rem ; animus cdpax 
ad preecepta ; ad fraudem callidus; pblens in res bellicdsas, <fce. 

3d. An ablative with a preposition ; as, avidus in pecuniis, " eager in 
regard to money;" anxius defdmd ; super scelere susjyectus ; <fce. 

4th. An ablative without a preposition ; as, arte rudis, " rude in art ;" 
regni crimine insons ; prcestans ingenio. 535. 

o54. — Obs. 4. Some adjectives usually governing the dative, sometimes 
govern the genitive ; such as similis, dissimilis, &o. See 385. 

355. — Rule X. Partitives and words placed 
partitively, comparatives, superlatives, interro- 
gate ves, and some numerals, govern the genitive 
plural ; as, 

Aliquis philosophorum, Some one of the philosophers. 

Senior fratrum, The elder of the brothers. 

Jjoctjswtnu* RomanOrum, The most learned of the Romans 

Quis nosfYum ? Which of us? 

Una musdrum, Oi d of the muses. 

Octdvus sapientium, The eighth of the wise men. 



§ 107 SYNTAX.— GENITIVE. 227 

356. — EXPLANATION. — A partitive is a word which signifies a part 
of any Dumber of persona or tilings, in contradistinction to the whole. A 
word placed partitive!?/ is one which, though it does not dignity a part, yet 
is sometimes used to distinguish a part from the whole ; as, expedlti militjm, 
" the light armed (of the) soldiers." The partitive, when an adjective, takea 
the gender of the whole, and governs it in the genitive plural ; or, if a col- 
lective noun, in the genitive singular ; and in this case, the partitive takes 
the gender of the noun understood ; as, doctissimus sua cetdtis. 

357.- -Obs. 5. Partitives are such words as, ullus, nullus, solus, alias, 
liter, ute^que, neuter, alter, ahquis, quldam, quisquis, quicunque, quia? 
qui? quot ? tot, aliquot, nonnulli, plerlque, multi, pauci, mcdius, ci:c. 

Words are used partitively in such expressions as the following : suptri 
deorum ; sancte deorum; degcnercs canurn ; miscium femtnae. To which 
add oui/iis, cunctus, nemo ; as, o nines Macedouum ; nlmo nostrum. 

358. — Obs. 6. The comparative with the genitive denotes one of two: 
the superlative denotes a part of a number greater than two ; as, major 
fratrum, "the elder of two brothers;" maximus fratrum, "the eldest of 
(three or more) brothers." So also, utcr, alter, and neuter, generally refer 
to two ; quit, alius, and nullus, to more than two ; as : v.ter nostrum ? '• which 
of us (two) ?" q ids nostrum ? " which of us (three or more)?" Nostrum 
and vestrum are used after partitives ; seldom nostri and vestri. 

359. — Obs. 1 !. The partitive is sometimes understood; as, Fies nobi- 
lium tu quoque fontium (sc. unus), Hor. 

360. — Obs. 8. Instead of the genitive after the partitives, the ablative 
is often found governed by de, e, ex, or in ; or the accusative with inter or 
ante ; as, unus e stole is ; ante om7ies pulcherrimus ; inter reges 
opulentissimus. 

361. — Rule XL Adjectives of plenty or want 
govern the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Plenus Ira? or ird, Full of anger. 

Inops rationis or ratione, Void of reason. 

EXPLANATION. — As in Rule IX, the adjective here is a general term, 
but limited in its application by the genitive or ablative following it. 

362. — Obs. 9. Among adjectives denoting plenty or want, a considerable 
variety of construction is found. 

a. Some govern the genitive only ; as, benignus, exsors, impos, impotens, 
irritus, liberdlis, muuiflcus, <fcc. 

b. Some govern the ablative only ; as, bedtus, mutilus, tunndus, turgl- 
dus. 

e. Some govern the genitive more frequently ; as, compos, consors, egh 
nus, exh ceres, expers, fertilis, indlgus, parous, pauper, prodigus, sterilis, 
prosper, insatidtus, insatiabilis. 

d. Some govern the ablative more frequently; as, abuna'ans, alienu\ 



228 SYNTAX.— GENITIVE. § 108 

cassus, extorris, firmus, fcetus, frequens, gravis, gravidas, jejunus, infirmus, 
liber, locuples, Icetus, mactus, nudus, onustus, orbus, pollens, satiatus, tenuis, 
truncus, viduus. 

e. Some govern the genitive or ablative indifferently ; as, copiosus, dives, 
fecundus, ferax, immunis, inanis, mops, largus, modicus, immodicus, 
nimius, opulentus, plenas, potens, purus, refertus, satur, vacuus, uber. 

363. — Obs. 10. Many of these adjectives are sometimes limited by a 
preposition and its case ; as, Locus copiosus a frumento. Cic. Ab omni re 
par at us. Id. Parens in victu. Plin. In affectibus potentisswius. Quinct 
Potens in res bellicas. Liv. &a. 



§ 108. THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

364. — Rule XII. Sum governs tlie genitive of 
a person or thing to whicli its subject belongs as a 
possession, property, or duty ; as, 

Est regis, It belongs to the king. 

Hominis est err are, It is characteristic of man to er,r. 

365. — EXPLANATION. — The genitive in this construction is supposed 
to be governed by the adjective proprius, or the substantive qfficium, munus, 
res, negotium, opus, &c, understood. (When it is expressed, the genitive is 
governed by it according to Eule VI.) The verb is in the third person, — 
often has an infinitive or clause for its nominative, and may be rendered in 
any way by which the sense is expressed; such as, it belongs to; — it is the 
property — tlie part — the duty — the peculiarity — the character of, &c. The fol- 
lowing are examples : 

Inslpientis est dicere non putaram, It is the part of a fool, <fec. 
Mifatum est suo duci parere, It is the duty of soldiers, (fee. 

Laudare se vani est, It is the mark of a, vain man, &c. 

So the following — Arrogantis est negligere quid de se quisque sentiat. 
Cic. Pecus est Melibozi. Virg Haze sunt homhiis. Tee. Pauperis est 
numerate peeus. Ovid. Tenner %t as est for entis aitatis, prudentia senectuiis. 
Cic. Antiqui moris fuit. P!lin. 

366. — Obs. 1. Sometimes the genitive, in the predicate of a sentence, 
is governed by the preceding word repeated after the verb; as, Hoc pecus 
est (pecus) Melibozi; Hie liber est (liber) fratris. Sometimes the 
gonitis^ e depends on some general word understood, but easily supplied in 
the mind; as, lliucydtdeu, qui ejusdem cetatis fuit, sc. homo. Tlie same 
construction is sometimes used after fio, and some other verbs; as, As! a 



§ 108 SYNTAX. — GENITIVE. 229 

Jtomanorum facta est, sc. provincia, "Asia became (a possession a** 
province) of the Romans." 

367. — Obs. 2. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the 
nominative neuter of the possessive is commonly used, agreeing with offi- 
cium, viunus, <fcc, understood; as, tuum est, "it is your duty," instead of 
tui ; meum est, " it is my part," instead of mei. So also, instead of a geni- 
tive of a noun, an adjective derived from it may be used ; as, h u m a n u m 
est ; r eg iu m est ; etfacere et putt fortia Romdnu m est. 

60£). — Obs. 3. If the verb be in the infinitive, the possessive pronoun 
must be in the accusative ; as, scio tuum esse, " I know it is your duty ;" 
and if a substantive be expressed, the possessive must agree with it in 
gender, number, and case ; thus, lice partes fuerunt tuce is equivalent to tuum 
fait, or tuarum partium fuit, "it was your part." 

369. — Rule XIII. Misereor, miser esco, and uar 
tago, govern the genitive ; as, 

Miserere civium tuorum, Pity your countrymen. 

Satdgit rerum sudrum, He is busy with his own affairs. 

370. — EXPLANATION. — The genitive, in this construction, has been 
supposed to be governed by such a noun as negotio, causa, re, &c, under- 
stood'; governed by the prepositions de, a, in, or the like ; as, miserere de 
causd civium, &c. We consider it better, however, to regard these genitives 
as governed directly by the verb, and expressing, as in Greek, the cause or 
origin of the feeling which the verb expresses. See Gr. Gram., § 144, 
Rule XIV. 

371. — Obs. 4. Many other verbs denoting some affection of the miud 
are sometimes followed by a genitive, denoting that with regard to which, 
or on account of which, the affection exists. These are ango, decipior, 
desipio, discrucior, /alio, fallor, fastidio, invideo, Icetor, mlror, pendeo, 
studeo, vereor, &C. Thus, Absurde facts qui angas te animi. Plaut. Dis- 
crucior animi. Ter. Fallebar sermonis. Plaut. Lmtbr maldrwn. Virg. 
These verbs have commonly a different construction. Note 2. See No. 540. 

Note 1. — The first and second of these examples resemble the peculiar 
Greek construction, explained Gr. Gram., § 148, Obs. 2. 

372. — Obs. 5. Several verbs, especially among the poets, are found 
with the genitive, in imitation of the Greek construction (Gr. Gram., § 1 14, 
Pules XVI. and XVII.). These are abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, regno ; 
also, adipi&cor, condlco, credo, frustror, faro, laudo, liber o, levo, part" 
prphibeo ; thus, Abstineto irdrum. Hor. Desine quereldrum. Id. Regno- 
vit populbrum. Id. Levas me laborum. Plaut. 

Note 2. — All these verbs, however, in Obs. 4 and 5, have, for the most 
part, a different construction, being followed sometimes, as active transi- 
tive verbs, by the accusative, and more frequently, by the accusative or 
ablatio with a preposition. 



230 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. § 109 

373. — Eule XIV. Mecordor, memini, reminis- 
coi\ and obliviscor, govern the genitive or ac- 
cusative ; as, 

Rccordor lectionis, or lectionem, I remember the lesson. 
Oblivlscor injur ice, or injur iam, I forget an injury. 

374 # — EXPLANATION.— When these verbs are followed by an ac- 
cusative, they are considered transitive, and fall under Eule XX. But when 
a genitive follows them, they are regarded as intransitive ; and the genitive 
denotes that in regard to which the memory, &c, is exercised. 

875. — Obs. 6. These verbs are often construed with an infinitive or 
some part of a sentence, instead of the genitive or accusative ; as, Memini 
videre virginem. Ter. 

376. — Obs.*l. Recorder and memini, signifying "to remember," are 
sometimes followed by an ablative with de. Memini, signifying " to make 
mention of," has a genitive or an ablative with de. Ei venit in mentem, 
being equivalent to recordatur, has a genitive after it ; as, Ei venit in men- 
tern potesicdis hue. 

N. B. For the genitive with verbs of accusing, see § 122; — 
with verbs of valuing, § 122, R. XXVIII. ; — with Passive verbs, 
§ 126 ; — with Impersonal verbs; § 113 ; — with Adverbs, § 135: 
denoting place, § 130, 548 and 558. 



377.— § 109. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 

1. The Dative is used to express the remote object to which any quality or 
action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to which they refer. This 
tendency is usually expressed in English by the words TO or FOR. Hence, 

2. The dative, in Latin, is governed by nouns, adjectives, and verbs ; or 
denotes the object to which they refer. 

'6. A use of the dative of the personal pronouns, common in Greek, and 
usually called the dative redundant, has also been imitated in Latin. See 
Gr. Gram., 517, Rem. The following are examples: Quo tantum mihi 
dexter ubis? Virg. Fur mihi es. Plaut. Tongilium mihi eduxit. Cic. 
Ubi nunc nobis deus ille magister ? Virg. Ecce tibi Sebosus. Cic. Sue 
sibi gladio hune jugulo. — But, though the dative thus used is said to be 
redundant, still it adds something to the meaning or emphasis of the ex- 
pression, or shows that the person expressed in the dative has some rela 
tion to, or participation in, the fact expressed; thus, Fur mihi es, "(In 
my opinion,) you are a thief." 



§ 110, 111 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. 231 



§ HO.— DATIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 

378. — Rule XV. Substantives frequently go- 
vern the dative of their object; as, 

Hostis virtutibus, An enemy to virtue. 

Exilium pecori, Destruction to the flock. 

Obternperantia legWus, Obedience to the laws. 

379. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the governing substantive 
generally denotes an affection, or some advantage, or disadvantage, or act, 
which is limited, as to its object, by the dative following it, as in the pre- 
ceding examples. 

380 — Obs. 1. Rule. The dative of the possessor is governed 
by substantives denoting the thing possessed ; as, 

Ei venit in men tern, It came into his mind. 

Cui corpus porrigitur, Whose body is extended. 

381. — Obs. 2. The dative in this construction is said to be used for, or 
instead of, the genitive, as in Rule VI. There are but few instances, how- 
ever, in which the genitive under that rule could, with propriety, be 
changed for the dative. On the other hand, when the dative is used, the 
genitive would fail to express so precisely the idea intended. In this con- 
struction, the noun governing the dative is connected with a verb in such 
a way as clearly to show, that the dative is rather the object of that which 
is expressed by the verb and noun together, than under the government 
of the noun alone. Thus, in the first example, ei denotes the person to 
whom that which is expressed by venit in me?ite?n, occurred. So, corpus 
porriaitur states What was done to the person represented by cui. The 
principle of this construction will be more manifest from what is stated 502. 



§ 111. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

382. — Rule XVI. Adjectives signifying profit 
or clisprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the 
dative ; as, 

Utilis bello, Useful for war. 

ISimilis patri, ■ Like his father. 

3So. — EXPLANATION.— The dative under this rule, like the genitive 
under Rule IX, is used to limit the meaning of the adjective to a particular 
object or end, to which the quality expressed by it is directed. Thus, in the 
firat example, utilis means ' ; useful " in a general sense ; bello limits the uso 



232 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. § Hi 

fulness intended to a particular object, "war." The dative, thus used is 
rendered by its ordinary signs to or for, but sometimes by other prepositions, 
or without a preposition, as in the last example. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

384. — Obs. 1. To this rule belong adjectives signifying : 

1st. Profit, or disprofit; as, benignus, bonus, commodus, felix ; — damndsus, 
dirus, exitiosus. funestus, (fee. 

2d. Pleasure, or pain ; as, acceptus, dulcis, grains, jucundus, Icetus, suavls ; 

— acerbus, amdrus, ingrdtus, molestus, (fee. 
3d. Friendship, or hatred; as, cequus, amicus, blandus, cams, deditus, 

f idics ; — adversus, asper, crudelis, infestus, (fee. 
4th. Perspicuity, or obscurity ; as, apertus, certus, compertus, conspicuus, 

notus ; — ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, obscicrus, (fee. 
5th. Propinquity ; as, finitimus, propior, proximus, propinquus, socius, 

viclnus, afflnis, (fee. 
6th. Fitness, or unfitness ; as, aptus, appositus, habilis, idoneus, opporiunus ; 

— ineptus, inhabilis, importunus, (fee. 

'/tin. Ease, or difficulty ; a&,facilis, levis, obvius, pervius ; — difficilis, arduus^ 

gravis. Also those denoting propensity or readiness ; as, pro?ius l 

procllvis, propensus, (fee. 
8th. Equality, or inequality ; likeness, or unlikeness ; as, ceqiwlis, cequos- 

vus, par, compar ; — incequdlis, impar, dispar, discors ; — similis, 

cemulus ; — dissimilis, alienus, d:c. 
9th. Several adjectives compounded with CON; as, cogndtus, c^ngruus, 

cousonus, co?ive?iiens, continens, (fee. 
10th. Verbal adjectives in BILIS ; as, amabilis, terribilis, optabil'% and 

the like. 

38o. — Obs. 2. — Exc. The following adjectives have sometimes the 
dative after them, and sometimes the genitive : viz: afflnis, shmlis, com- 
man is, par, proprius, finitrmus, fldus, conterminus, superstes, conscius, 
ccqudlis, contrarius, and adversus ; as, similis tibi, or tui. 

Conscius and some other adjectives, govern the dative according to this 
rule, and, at the same time, a genitive by Rule IX.; as, Mens sibi cons*ia 
recti, " a mind conscious to itself of rectitude." Virg. 

386. — Obs. 3. Adjectives signif.ing motion or tendency to a thing, 
take after them the accusative with ad. rather than the dative ; as, pro- 
cllvus, pronus, pjropensus, velox, celer, tardus, piger, (fee. ; thus, Plger ad 
prtnas. Ovid. 

bS t — Obs. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness, and the con- 
trary, often take the accusative with ad; as, utilis ad nullam rem, " good 
for nothing." 

088 — Obs. 5. Propior and proximus take after them sometimes the 
genitive, sometimes the dative, or the accusative governed by ad under 
stood; as, propior caliglnis an' ; propius vcro ; proximus (ad) Pompcium. 

o89 — Obs. 6. Some adjectives that govern the dative, sometimes, 



§ 112 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. 233 

instead of the dative, have an ablative with a preposition expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, discors secwm ; alienum nostra amicitid. 

390. — Obs. 7. Idem is sometimes followed by the dative, chiefly in the 
poets ; as, Jupiter idem o m nib us ; Invltum qui servat, idem faeit 
Occident i. In prose, idem is followed commonly by qui, ac, atque, ut, or 
guam, 728. 



§ 112. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VEEBS. 

391. — Kitle XVII. All verbs govern the dative 
of the object or end, to which the action, or state 
expressed by them, is directed ; as, 

Finis vail t imperio, An end has come to the empire. 

us redit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy. 
Tibi seris, tibi metis, You sow for yourself, you reap for yourself. 

392. — EXPLANATION. — This rule may be considered as general, ap- 
plying to all cases in which a verb is followed by a dative. When the verb 
is transitive active, it governs its remote object in the dative, not as that 
upon which the action is exerted, but as that to which it is directed, while, at 
the same time, it governs also its immediate object in the accusative (501). 
If intransitive, it will be followed by a dative only. 

This rule, being applicable to all cases in which a dative follows a verb, is 
too general to be useful, as it could be applied correctly without much discri- 
mination. It w r ill therefore be of more advantage, when it can be done, to 
apply the special rules comprehended under it as follows : 

SPECIAL RULES. 

393. — I. Sum, and its compounds, govern the 
dative (except possum) ; as, 

Prcefnit exercitui, He commanded the army. 

Debemus omnibus prodesse, We ought to do good to all. 

394. — II. The verb Est, signifying to le^ or to 
belong to, governs the dative of the possessor ; as, 

Est mild liber, A book is to me, i. e. I have a book. 

Sunt mi hi libri, Books are to me, i. e. I have books. 

Scio libros esse mihi, I know r that books are to me, i. e. — that I have, &c. 

895. — EXPLANATION.— In this construction, the dative expresses the 
person or thing, to or for which the subject spoken of, is, or exists. The 
verb will always be in the third person singular, or plural, in any tense, or 



234 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. § 112 

in the infinitive. — This very common Latin construction will be rendered 
correctly into English, by the verb " have," instead of " is, : ' &c, of which 
the word m the dative, in Latin, becomes the subject or nominative in En- 
glish, and the Latin nominative, the object, as is shown in the above 
examples. — For the verb est with the gerund, see 699. 

896. — Obs. 1. The dative is used in a similar manner after forem, 
suppeto ; desum, dejicio, <fcc. ; as, Pauper non est cui rerum sup pet it 
us us, " He is not poor to whom the use of property is supplied," i. e. who 
has the use of property. Hon. So, si m i h i cauda fb r e t. — Abest and 
deest miku as opposed to est mild, mean, "I have not:' — So, defuit ars 
v obi s, — lac m i h i non d efi t,-^nisi vlnum nobis d efe cisse t, — &c. 

Note. — An adjective, or participle, denoting willingness or unwillingness, 
agreeing with the dative after est, is sometimes put for a verb of like 
signification, having the word in the dative for its subject; thus, Mihm 
volenti est=volo ; tibi invito fuit = noluisti, &o. ; as, Aliqaid mi hi volenti 
est, " I like (or wish) a thing ;" Aliquid mi hi invito es t, "1 dislike a 
thing.'' So, Q alb us bellum v olentibus er at, " Who wisJied for 
w r ar," Tac, Agr., 18; — Neque plebi militia volenti esse putabdtur, 
* It was thought the Common people did not wish for war," or, " That war 
would not be agreeable to the common people." — This is a Greek con- 
struction, for which see Greek Grammar, § 148, Obs. 3. 

397. — III. Verbs compounded of satis, bene, 
and male, govern the dative ; as, 

Legibus satisfecit, He satisfied the laws. 

Benefacere reipubliccc, To benefit the state. 

398. — Obs. 2. These compounds are often written separately, and the 
dative is governed by the combined force of the two words. 

399. : — IV. Many verbs compounded with these 
ten prepositions ad, ante, con, — in, inter, ob, — 
post, prce, sub, and super, govern the dative ; as, 

Annue cozptis, Favor our undertakings. 

400. — Verbs governing the dative under this rule are such 
as the following ; viz. 

1. Acccdo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnato, adequito, adhazreo, 
adsto, adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allaboro, annuo, appareo, 
applaudo, appropinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, assldeo, assisto, assucsco, 
as-surr/o. 

2. Antecello, anteco, antesto, anteverto. 

3. Coliado, conczno, consbno, coi\vlvo. 

4. lneumbo, indormio, indubito, inhio, ingemisco, i?ihcereo, insideo, insi- 
dcor, inst.o, insisto, insUdo. insulto, invigllo, illacrymo, illudo, immineo, 
imiitorior, immbror , impoideo. 



§ 112 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. 235 

5. Intcrvcitlo, ii ten/uco, intercede*, intercldo, iutcrjaceo. 

6. Obrlpo, oblucto, obt recto, obstrepo, obmurmuro, occumbo, occur ro, oc- 
cur so, obsto, obsisto, obveuio. 

1. Postfero, posthabeo, postpdno, postputo, postscrlbo, with an accusative. 

8. Prceccdo, pracurro, prceeo, prcesideo, prceluceo, prceniteo, prcesto, p>rce- 
valeo, prceverto. 

9. Succcdo, succumbo, sufficio, suffrdgor, subcresco, suboleo, subjaceo, 
subrcpo. 

10. Supervenio, siqiercurro, sujjersto But most verbs compounded with 
super govern tbe accusative. 

401. — Obs. 3. Some verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, ciraim, and 
contra; also compounds of di and efts, meaning generally "to differ." are 
sometimes followed by the dative. These, however, chiefly fall under 
Rule XXXL § 125. 

40*2. — Obs. 4. Many verbs compounded with prepositions, instead of 
the dative, take the case of the preposition, which is sometimes repeated. 
Some intransitive verbs so compounded, either take the dative, or, acquir- 
ing a transitive signification by the force of the preposition, govern the 
accusative bv Rule XX. ; as, Helvetii rellquos G alios virtute prcece- 
dunt, " The Helvetii surpass the other Gauls in bravery." 

403! — V. Verbs govern the dative which signi- 
fy to profit or hurt ; — to favor or assist, and the 
contrary; — to command and obey, to serve and 
resist ;— to threaten and to be angry; to trust. 

404. — EXPLANATION.— Verbs governing the dative, under this and 
the preceding rule, are always intransitives or transitives used intransitively, 
and eonsequently it is applicable to the active voice only. The dative after 
passive verbs, does not come under these rules, but belongs to § 12G, 
Rule XXXIII. 

405. — Obs. 5. The verbs under this rule are such as the fol- 
lowing : 

1st. To profit or hurt ; as, 

Projicio, prosum, placeo, commodo, prospicio, caveo, metuo, thneo, consulo, 
for prospicio. Likewise, noceo, officio, incommodo, dispAiceo, <fcc. 

2d. To favor or assist, and the contrary ; as, 

Faveo, gratulor, gratificor, grdtor, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, adalor, 
plaudo, blandior, lenoclnor, palpor, a.sse?itor, .subparasitor Likewise, 
ausrilior, adminiculor, subvenio, succurro, poirociitor, medeor, ?/tedlcor t 
cpduJor. Likewise, dtrdgp, detraho, invideo, ce/uulor. 

3d. To command and obey, to serve and resist ; as, 

Lnpcro, pracipio, mando ; moderor, for modum adliibeo. Likewise, pareo, 
ausculto, obedio. obsequor, obUmptro, jnoreni gero, morigeror, obsccundo. 



236 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. § 118 

Likewise, famulor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor. Likewise, rcpugnc 
obsto, reluctor, renltor, resist o, refragor, adversor. 

4th. To threaten and to be angry ; as. 

Minor, comniinor, irascor, succenseo. 

5th. To trust ; as. Fldo, conftdo, credo, diffido. 

To these, add, nitbo, excello, hoereo, supphco, cedo, despero, operor, prce- 
st-olor, prcevaricor ; recipio, " to promise ;" renuncio ; respondeo, " to 
answer," or " satisfy ;" tempero, studeo ; vaco, " to be at leisure for ;" convicior. 

Exc. — Jubeo, jicvo, Icedo, and offendo, govern the accusative. 

406. — Obi. 6. Many of these verbs, however, are variously construed, 
the same verb sometimes governing the dative according to this rule ; and 
sometimes, taken in a transitive sense, governing the accusative by Rule XX. 
Sometimes they are followed by an accusative with a preposition, and 
sometimes by an ablative with a preposition. Thus, impendere alicui, or 
aliquem, or in aliquem, "to hang over;" congruere alicui, cum aliqua re, 
inter se, " to agree." 

407. — Obs. 7. Many verbs, when they vary their construction, vary 
their meaning also ; as, Timeo tibi, — de te, — pro te, signifies, " I fear for 
you," i. e. " for your safety ;" but timeo te, means, " I fear you," " I dread 
you," Consulo tibi, is " I consult for you " i. e. " for your safety." - Consulo 
te, means " I consult you, I ask*your advice ;" and so of others. 

408. — Obs. 8. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead 
of the dative, have usualfy the preposition ad or in with the accusative ; 
as, clamor it ad ccelum ; seldom, ana chiefly with the poets, codo. 



§ 113. DATIVE GOVERNED BY IMPERSONALS, 

409. — Eule XVIII. An impersonal verb governs 
the dative ; as, 

Expedit reipublicce, It is profitable for the state, 

410. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to the dative governed by 
the passive of all those verbs which, in the active voice, govern the dative 
only, according to Nos. 397, 399 and 403, — the passive of all intransi- 
tives being used only impersonally (228-3); thus,favetur mild, " I am favored," 
not egofaveor. When the passives of such verbs are used personally, then 
the verb is to be considered as used in a transitive sense. 406. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

411. — Obs. 1. Thieve verbs, potest, coppit, incvpit, desinit, debet, and 
solet, before the infinitive of impersonate, become impersonal also ; as., a wn 
pates* credi tibi, " you cannot be believed" 



§ 113 SYNTAX. — DATIYE. 237 

41 2. — Obs. 2. Some verbs are used both personally Lnd impersonally 
as, dol'eo, " I grieve ;" dolet mihi, ; ' it grieves me," i. e. " I grieve. : So also 
verbs commonly used impersonally sometimes have a subject in the 
nominative, and are, of course, used personally. This is the case especially 
with such nominatives as these — id, hoc, ill ud, quid, quod, nihil, &c. ; as, 
Non u.e h a c Lc piident ? " Are you not ashamed of these tilings P 

413. — Obs. 3. An infinitive mood or part of a sentence is commonly 
joined to an impersonal verb, which, in fact, may be regarded as its sub 
ject ; as, delectat me studere, "it delights me to study,'' i.e. "to study- 
delights me" 307 and 662. 

414. — Obs 4. The dative after impersonate is sometimes understood- 
as, facial quod hbet (sc. sibi) 

415. — Exc. I. Refert ard Interest govern the 
g v enitive ; as, 

Refert patris, It concerns my father. 

Interest omnium, It is the int^est of all 

416. — But, instead of the genit : ^e? mei, tm, 
sui, &c., the possessives ruea, tua, sua, nostra, 
vestra, are used; as, 

Non mea refert, It does not concern me. 

417. — Obs. 5. The case and construction of these possessives are in 
much doubt. Some regard them as the accusative plural neuter agreeing 
with negotia or commbda governed by ad; as, non {ad negotia) mea refert. 
But as the final a, in this construction, is found in Terence to be long, 
others consider it in the ablative singular, feminine, agreeing with re or 
causa governed by in; as, in mea re non refert; while others suppose that 
mea, tud, £c, are abbreviations from meam, tuam, <fcc, agreeing with rem, 
and hence the final a long. Non nostrum tantas componere lltes. It is 
more manifest that refert, in which e is long, is not from refero, but from 
res and fero, and means, impersonally, " it profits," " it befits," " it con- 
cerns," <fcc. Sometimes it is used personally with hoc, id, or an infinitive, 
for its subject. It is equally obvious that if mea or tua, or sua, <tc, agrees 
with some word understood, then the genitive under the rule may be 
governed by the same word, according to- Rule VI; i. e. if mea refert is 
for mea negotia, (fcc, refert, then refert patris may be for refert negotia 
patris, whether negotia in the accusative, or re in the ablative, be governed 
directly by the verb, or by a preposition understood. 

418. — Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, these verbs sometimes take the 
accusative with a preposition; as, refert ad me, for refert mea, i. e. mei. 
Sometimes they are used absolutely, without a case expressed. 

419. — Exc. II. These five Miser et, pcenitet, 
pudet, t<ede% and piget, govern the accusative of 



238 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. § 114 

tlie immediate, with the genitive of the remote 
object; as, 

Miseret me tui, I pity you. 

Pasmtet me peccati, I repent of my sin. 

Tcedet me vitce, I am weary of life. 

Ptickt me culpce, I am ashamed of my fault. 

420. — EXPLANATION.— These examples may be rendered literally 
thus: "It grieves me on account of you," i. e. ergo, or causa tui\ — "It 
repents me of my sin; 1 ' — "It wearies me of life;" — "It shames me of my 
fault." For the method of rendering impersonal verbs in a personal form, as 
in the above examples, see 223-6. 

421. — Obs. 7. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence may supply 
the place of the genitive ; as, pcenitet me peccdsse, or quod peccavcrint. 
Non pcenitet me quantum profecerim. Mis&ret is found with an 
accusative instead of the genitive ; as, Menedemi vie em miseret vie. 
The accusative of the immediate object is sometimes omitted ; as, Scele- 
rum si bene pcenitet (scil. n o s). Hor. 

422. — Obs. 8. The preterites of these verbs, in the passive form, go- 
vern the same cases as the active ; as, Miser itum est me tudrum for- 
tunarum. Ter. Miserescit and miser etur are sometimes used imper- 
sonally ; as, Miser escit me tui. Ter. Miser eatur te fr at rum \ Neque 
m e tui , neque tudrum liber or um miser eri potest. Cic. 

423. — Exo. III. Decet, delected, juvat, and opor> 
tet, govern the accusative of a person with the 
infinitive ; as, 

Delectat me studere, It delights me to study. 

JYon decet te rixdri, It does not become you to scold 

424. — Obs. 9. These verbs are sometimes used personally; as, Par- 
vum parva decent. Hor. Decet sometimes governs the dative; as, Ita 
nobis decet. Ter. 

425. — Obs. 10. Oportct, instead of the infinitive, elegantly takes the 
subjunctive with nt, " that," understood ; as, tiibi (u t) quisque consul at 
oportct. Cic. When followed by the perfect participle, esse or fuisse is 
in; derstood, which, being supplied, makes the perfect infinitive. 

426. — Obs. 11. Fallit, fuc/it, prwterit, Icltet, when used impersonally, 
are construed with the accusative and infinitive; as,fugit me ad te scri- 

b e r e . Cic. 



§ 114. VERBS GOVERNING TWO DATIVES. 

427. — Rule XIX. The verbs sum, do, kabeo, 
and some others, with the dative of the object, 



§ 114 SYNTAX. — DATIVE. 239 

govern also the dative of the end, or design; 
as, 

., rr , .j. 7 .... ( It is to me for a pleasure, i. e. 

1. iLst mini voluptati. < T , • , . r , ' 

r ' (It is, o?* brings, a pleasure to me. 

2. £Toc mlsit mild muneri, This he sent as a present to me. 

„ -v ., 7 _ . .„, . f It is reckoned to you for an honor, i. e. 

3. Ducitur honori tioi, f T4 . i j i i. 

( It is reckoned an honor to you. 

428. — EXPLANATION.— In these examples, it is manifest that the 
words voluptati, honori, and muneri, each express the end or design for which 
the thing spoken of, or referred to, is, is reckoned, is sent, to the object ex- 
pressed by the other datives, mild and tibi. See also 431. 

The verb sum, with the dative of the end, may be variously rendered, ac- 
cording to the sense, by such words as, brings, affords, serves, &c. For, the 
sign of the dative, is often omitted, especially after sum. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

429. — Obs. 1. Verbs governing two datives under this rule, are chiefly, 
sum, fore, Jio, Iiabeo, do, verto, relinquo, tribuo, duco ; and a few others. 

430. — Gbs. 2. Instead of the dative of the end, the nominative after 
est, cfeet, or the accusative in apposition with the object of the preceding 
verb, expresses the same thing ; as, Amor est exitium pecori, for exilio ; 
Se Achilli com it em esse datum dlcit, fov comiti. In the first example, 
exitium is the nominative after est, by Rule V. In the second, comitem is 
in apposition with se, by Rule L 

431. — Obs. 3. Intransitive verbs, such as sum, fore, fio, eo, cur ro, pro- 
ficixcor, venio, cedo, suppedlto, are followed by two datives, as in the first 
example ; transitive verbs in the active voice, besides the two datives, 
have an accusative expressed or understood by Rule XX., as in the second 
example ; and in the passive voice, two datives, as in the third example, 
the one by Rule XXIX., and the other by this rule. 

432. — Obs. 4. The dative of the object (commonly a person) is often to 
be supplied ; as, est. exemplo, indicia, prcesidio, usui, <tc, scil. mild, allcui, 
hoiiintibus, or some such word. So. ponere, opponere, pic/nor i, scil. ahcui, 
"to pledge ;" can ere receptui, scil. suis militibus, " to sound a retreat;" 
habere cilrae, questui, odio, voluptati, studio, etc., scil. s\bi. 

433. — Obs. 5. To this rule is sometimes referred the forms of naming, 
so common in Latin ; such as, Est m i h i nomen Alexandro; Cu i cog- 
7i omen lulo a'dditur. The construction 261 is much better. 

434. — Obs. 6. From constructions ' under this rule, should be distin- 
guished those in which the second dative may be governed by another 
noun in the dative, according to 378. 

N. B. For the dative with the accusative, see § 123. 

For the dative after the passive voice, see § 126. 
For the dative after particles, see 598 and 600. — After 
Hei and Vce, 453. 



240 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE. § 115, 116 

435.— § 115. CONSTRUCTION OF THR ACCUSATIVE. 

1. The accusative, in Latin, is used to express the immediate object < f 
a transitive active verb, — or, in other words, that on which its action is 
exerted, and which is affected by it. 

2 It is used to express the object to which something tends or relates, 
in which sense it is governed by a preposition, expressed or understood. 
When used to express the remote object of a transitive verb, or certain 
relations of measure, distance, time, and place, the preposition is usually 
omitted. 



§ 116. ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

436. — Rule XX. A transitive verb in the active 
voice, governs tlie accusative ; as, 

Ama Deum, Love God. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

437. — I. A transitive deponent verb governs 
the accusative ; as, 

Reverere parentes, Reverence your parents. 

438. — II. An intransitive verb may govern a 
noun of kindred signification, in the accusative ; as, 

Pugnare pugnam, To fight a battle. 

439. — EXPLANATION.— These rules apply to all -verbs which have an 
accusative as their immediate object ; and that accusative may be any thing 
used substantively, whether it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or 
clause of a sentence. Intransitives under Kule II. are often followed by the 
ablative, with a preposition expressed or understood ; as, Ire (in) itinere, 
gaudere (cum) gaudio, &c. 

440. — Obs. 1. Verbs signifying to name, choose, reckon, constitute, and 
the like, besides the accusative of the object, take also the accusative of 
the name, office, character, &c, ascribed to it; as, urbem Rom am vocd 
vit, " he called the city Rome? All such verbs, in the passive, have the 
same case after as before them. (320). 

441. — Obs. 2. Verbs commonly intransitive, are sometimes used . : i r 



§ 116 



SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE. 241 



transitive sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative under this 
rule; thus, " 

Transitive. Intransitive. 

Abhor rere f amain, to dread infamy. Abhorrere a litibus, to be averse, &c 

Abolere monumenta, to abolish, &c. Memoria abolevit, memory failed. 

Declindre ietum, to avoid a blow. Declindre loco, to remove from, &c. 

Laborare anna, to forge arms. Laborare morbo, to be ill. 

Morari iter, to stop. Mordri in urbe, to stay in the city. 

To these may be added horrere,- furere, vivere, ludere ; and verbs signi- 
fying to taste of, to smell of, <£c. ; as, horrere aliquid ; furere opus ccedls ; 
Bacchanalia vlvunt ; ludere pila ; redolere vlnum ; pastillos Rufillus diet, 
Gorgonius hircum; mella herbam sapiunt ; unguenta terrain sapiunt. 

442. — Ob*. 3. The accusative, after many intransitive verbs, depends 
on a preposition understood; as, 31 orient em nor/line cldmat ; Meas 
queror fo r tunas ; Num i d lacrymat virgo ; Qui c quid dellrant reges, 
plectuntur Achlvi ; Stygias juravvmus undas; Maria ambulavisset, ter- 
rain navigdsset, Virg. ; Pascuntur vero sylvas, Id. ; Ire exsequias; 
Ibo a m i c a in m e a m, Plaut. , cfcc. In these, and similar sentences, the 
prepositions ob, propter, circa, per, ad, in, <fcc, may be supplied. 

This construction of intransitive verbs is most common with the neuter 
accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, illud, tantum, quantum, 
hoc, multa, alia, pauca, cfcc. 

443. — Obs. 4. The accusative, after many verbs, depends on 
a preposition with which they are compounded. This is the 
case, 

1st. With intransitive verbs; as, Gentes quce mare illud adjacent, 
" the nations which border upon that sea." So, ineunt pradium, 
adlre provinciam, transcurrere mare, alloquor te, <fcc. Thus com- 
pounded, many verbs seem to become transitive in sense, and so 
govern the accusative by this rule. In general, however, they fall 
under Rule LIL 

2d. With transitive verbs, in which case two accusatives follow — one go 
verned by the verb, and another by the preposition ; as, Omnem 
equitdtum p on t e m t r a n s ducit , " He leads all the cavalry 
over the bridge ;'* — H elle spontum copias tr aj ecit. Here 
also the second accusative falls under Rule LIL 

Note 1. — After most verbs, however, compounded with prepositions go- 
verning the accusative, the preposition is repeated before it ; as, Caesar se 
ad neminem adjunxit. 

444. — Obs. 5. a. The accusative after a transitive verb, especially if 
a reflexive pronoun, or something indefinite or easily supplied, is some- 
times understood; as, turn p>rora avertit, scil. se ; flumina prcecipitant, scil. 
se ; faciarn vital a, scil. sacra; bene fecit Silius, scil. hoe. 

b. Sometimes the verb which governs the accusative is omitted, espe- 
cially in rapid or animated discourse ; thus, the interrogative quid often 
stands alone for quid ais ? quid censes? or the like. So also, quid vero $ 
quid iq'ttur ? quid ergo? quid enim ? Quid q^od. commonlv renH- d 

11 



242 SYNTAX.— VOCATIVE. g 117 

"nay," "nay .even," "but now," " moreoyer," may b'. re^oive^ thus, Quid 
dlcam de eo quod. With quid multa? quid plura? ne taulta, ne plura, 
scil. verba, supply dlcam ; as, Quid dlcam midta (yerod) * But, quid postea ? 
quid turn ? and the like, may be regarded as the nominative to seqmtur 
understood ; and the phrase quid it a ? may be resolved by supplying the 
preceding verb or some part oifacio. 

445.-- Obs. 6. Rule. The infinitive mood, or part of p 
sentence (439), is often used as the object of a transitive verb, 
instead of the accusative (665 and 670, Note) ; as, 

Da mihi fall ere, Give me to deceive. 

Cupio me esse cleme ntem, I desire to be gentle, 

Statuerunt ut naves con seen- They determined that they would 

derent. embark. 

Note 2. — In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes, 
by a Greek idiom, put in the accusative as the object of the verb; as, 
Nosti Marcellum, quam tardus sit ; instead of Nosti quam tardus Marcellus 
sit. So, ilium ut vivat optant, instead of ut ille vivat optant ; or ilium 
vivere optant. Gr. Gram., § 150, Obs. 4. 

446. — Obs. 7. A few cases occur in which the accusative is put after 
a noun derived from a verb, or the verbal adjectives in buhdus ; as, Quid 
tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum? "Wherefore do you re- 
ceive my husba?id hitherto you?" Plaut. Quid tibi hanc additio est. 
Id. Vitabundus castra. Liv. 

447. — Obs. 8. Many verbs considered transitive in Latin, are intransi- 
tive in English, and must have a preposition supplied in translating ; as, 
Ut caveret me, 4 ' That he should beware of me!' On the other hand, 
many intransitive verbs in Latin, i. e. verbs which do not take an accusa- 
tive after them, are rendered into English by transitive verbs ; as, For- 
tuna fa vet fortibus, u Eortune favors the brave? 

N. B. For the Accusative governed by Becordor, &c, see 
373 ; — with another accusative, 508 ; — governed by preposi- 
tions, 602, 607, 608, 613 ;— denoting time, 565, E, XLI. ;~ 
place, 553 ; — measure or distance, 573 ; in exclamations, 451. 



§ 117. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOCATIVE. 

448. — The vocative is used to designate the person or thiDg addressed, 
but forms no part of the proposition with which it stands ; and it is used 
either with, or without, an interjection. 

449. — Rule XXI. The interjections 0,heu, and 
proh, are construed with the vocative ; as, 

Ofonnose puer I O fair boy 1 



§118 SYNTAX- -ABLATIVE. 243 

450. — To these, may be added other interjections of calling or ad- 
dressing ; as, ah, an, ehem, eJieu, eho, eja, hem, heus, hui, io, ohe, and vah, 
which are often followed by the vocative : as, Heus Si/re, Ohe libelle. 

451. — Obs. 1. In exclamations, the person or thing wondered at, is put 
in the accusative, either with or without an interjection; as, Me miser urn, 
or, Heu me miserum, " Ah, wretch that I am !" — sometimes in the nomina- 
tive ; as, vir fortis atque amicus, Ter. ; Audi tu, populus Romauus, Liv. 

452. — Obs. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive de- 
pending upon it remains ; as, miser ce gentis, sc. homines, Lucan. 

453. — Obs. 3. The interjections Hei and Fee, govern the dative; SLS,Hei 
mihi, " Ah me !" Vce vobis, u Woe to you !" 

454.- — Obs. 4. Ecce and en, usually take the nominative; as, Ecce 
nova turb a atque rixa. En ego. 



§ 118. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE. 

455. — The ablative is used in Latin generally, to express that from 
which something is separated or taken ; or, as that by or with which, some- 
thing is done, or exists. It is governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs, and 
prepositions, and also is used to express various relations of measure, 
distance, time, and place, <£:c. 

THE ABLATIVE AFTER NOUNS. 

456. — Rule XXII. Opus and usus, signifying 
need, require the ablative ; as, 

Est opus pecuni a, There is need of money. 

Nunc usus vir ib us, Now, there is need of strength. 

457. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative, after these nouns, is probably 
governed by a preposition, such as pro, understood. In this sense, they are 
used only with the verb sum, of which opus is sometimes the subject, and 
sometimes the predicate ; usus, the subject only. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

458. — Obs. 1. Opus, in the predicate, is commonly used as an inde- 
clinable adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative; as, Dux nobis 
opus est, "We need a general,' 1 Cic. So, Dices nummos mihi opus esse 
Cic; Nobis exempt a opus sunt, Cic. In these examples, opus, as an in 
declinable adjective, agrees with dux, nummos, exempla, by Rule II. This 
construction is most common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is 
always used with those denoting quantity; as, Quod non opus est, asse 
canon est. Cato apud Sen. 

459. — Obs. 2. Opus and usus are often joined with the perfect parti- 
ciple ; as, opus maturato, " need of haste ;" opus consulto, " need of de- 
liberation ,'' usus facto, " need of action." The participle has sometimes a 



244 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE. § 119, 120 

substantive joined with it alter opus ; as, Mihi opus fuit Hirtio co li- 
ven to, " It behoved me to meet with Hirlius," Cic. Sometimes the supine 
is joined with it ; as, Ita clictu opus est, Ter. 

460. — Obs. 3. Opus is often followed by the infinitive, or by the sub- 
junctive with ut ; as, Siquid forte, quod opus sitsclri, Cic. Nunc tibi 
opus est, cegram ut te ad similes, Plaut. Sometimes it is absolutely 
without a ease, or with a case understood ; as, Sic opus est ; Si opus est, 

461. — Exc. Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the genitive, by 
Rule VI. ; as, A r gen t i opus fuit, " There was need of money f sometimes 
by an accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably understood ; as, 
Puero opus est cibu in ; scil. habere, Plaut. 



§ 119. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 

[For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or want, see 361.] 

462. — Rule XXIII. These adjectives dignus, 
indighus, contentus, prceditus, captus, and fretus y 

also the participles natus, satus, ortus, edltus, and 
the like, denoting origin, govern the ablative ; as, 

Dignus honor e, Worthy of honor. 

Contentus parvo, Content with little. 

Prceditus virtute, Endued with virtue. 

Captus oculis, Blind (injured in his eyes). 

Fretus viribu.% Trusting in his strength. 

Ortus regions, Descended from kings. 

463. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative, after these adjectives and par- 
ticiples, is governed by some preposition understood; as, cum, de, e, ex, in, &c. 
Sometimes it is expressed ; as, Ortus ex concubinti, Sallust. 

404. — Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, these adjectives often take an 
infinitive, or a subjunctive clause with qui, or ut ; as, Dignus amar i, 
Virg. ; Dignus qui imperet, Cic; Non sum dignus, ut fig am pd- 
lum in parietem, Plaut. 

4oo. — Exc. Dignus, indignus, and contentus, are sometimes followed 
by the genitive ; as, Dignus avorv.m, Virg. For the ablative governed by 
adjectives of plenty or want, see 361. 



g 120.— THE ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARATIVE 

DEGREE. 

406. — Rem. When two objects are compared by means of the compa- 
rative degree, a conjunction, such as, quam, ac, at que, &c] signifying 
w than," is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted. In the first, the 



§ 120 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE. 245 

construction of the case falls under other rules ; in the second, it falls 
under the following ; viz. 

467. — Rule XXIV. The comparative degree, 
without a conjunction, governs the ablative ; as, 

Dulcior melle, Sweeter than honey. 

Preestantior auro More precious than gold. 

Perennius cure, More durable than brass. 

46S. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative, under this rule, is supposed U 
do governed more properly hypra understood, which is sometimes expressed ; 
as, Unusproz cceteris for •Hot: 

OBSERVATIONS. 

469. — Obs. 1. Of these two modes of comparison, the ablative without 
a conjunction is commonly used, when the object is compared with the 
subject of a proposition, or with a word in the vocative or nominative, 
addressed ; as, Quid m dgis est dur u m sax o, quid m oil i u s undo. ? 
Xcm'i a /in Romanarum el oquentior em fuisse veteres judicdrunt i- 
c e r 6 n e ; fons Bandusice, sp I endidio r vit r o, Hor. But when, 
in such a comparison, quam is used, the second substantive will be in the 
same ease with the first, because, in the same construction ; as, JMelior est 
certa pax. quam sperala victoria (est); Meliorem esse certaitr pacem 
putabat, quo in sperdtam pacem (esse). 

Note 1. — The construction of the ablative without qua?n, is sometimes 
used, especially by the poets, when the first substantive is net the subject 
of a verb ; as, Exegi monumentum 02 re perennius, Hor.; Cur oll- 
vuni s an a n in e viperlno cautius vital ? Hor. This is always so, 
when the second object of comparison is expressed by a relative ; as, Hie 
Attalo. quo graviorem inimlcum non habui, sororcm in rnatrimonium 
dedit. " He gave his sister in marriage to Attalus, than whom, <fcc." 

470. — Obs. 2. When the object is compared with the predicate of a 
proposition, the conjunction quam is commonly used, and then there are 
two cases. 

1st. If th- verb after quam is not expressed, but may eaeily be supplied 
from the preceding clause, and if the first substantive is in the 
accusative, the second is put by attraction in the accusative also ; 
as. Ego Jiominem callidiorern vldi neniinem quam JP hor mi on em, 
instead of quam Phormio est. 

2d. But if the verb after quam cannot be supplied from the preceding 
clause, the substantive must be in the nominative with est f fuit, &c, 
expressed; as. Meliorem quam ego sum, suppono tibi ; Hac sunt 
verba M. Varronis, quam fuit CI dins, doctioris ; Argeutum 
reddidisti L. Carridio, homini non gratiosiori quam Cn. Clodi us 
est, Cic. 

471. — Obs. 3. Quam is frequently understood after plus, minus, and 
amplius, and sometimes after major, minor, and some other comparatives 
without a change of case ; as, Capta plus (qu am) quinque millia hominum, 



246 SYNTAX. — ABLATIVE. §121 

" More than five thousand men were taken;" Obstdes ne minores (quam) 
octonum deuum annorum. 

'Note. — These words are also followed by the ablative without quam t 
according to the rule. 

472. — Obs. 4. When the second member of a comparison is an infi- 
nitive mood, or a part of a sentence, quam is always expressed; as, Nihil 
turpius est quam meutlr i. 

473. — Obs. 5. The comparative is often followed by the ablative of 
the following nouns, adjectives, and participles ; viz. opinione, spe, expecta- 
tione, fide, — dicto, solito, — cequo, credibili, justo ; as, citius diet o, turn- 
Ida cequora placat, Virg. These ablatives often supply the place of a 
clause ; as, gravius 02 quo, equivalent to gravius qu am cequum est. 

These ablatives are sometimes omitted ; as, Liberius vivebat, sc. cequ o, 
" He lived more freely than was proper ;" i. e. " He lived too freely" or, 
" rather freely.*' 

474. — Obs. 6. When one quality is compared with another, in the same 
subject, the adjectives expressing them are both put in the positive degree 
with magis quam, or in the comparative connected by quam; as, ars 
magi s magna quam d iffi cilis. Triumphus clarior quam g ra- 
tio r, "a triumph more famous than acceptable? Gr. G-r. 393-3. 

475. — Obs. 7. The prepositions prce, ante, prceter, and supra, are some- 
times used with a comparative ; as, scelere ante alios im?nanior omnes : 
also with a superlative ; as, ante alios carissimus. Pro is used after 
quam, to express proportion; as, Prwlium atrocius quam pro numero 
pugnantium. 

476. — Obs. 8. Magis and minus joined to the positive degree, are 
equivalent to the comparative ; as, luce magis dilecta. Magis and 
plus joined with a comparative, only strengthen it ; as, Nihil invenies 
magi s hoc cer tius. 

477. — Obs. 9. Inferior, sometimes governs the dative ; as, vir nulla 
arte cuiquam inferior; the ablative also is found, but it is usually 
followed by quam. 

478. — Obs 10. Alius is sometimes construed like comparatives, and 
sometimes, though rarely, is followed by the ablative ; as, non putes 
alium sapience bono que beatum. 

479. — Obs. 11. The conjunction ac, or atque, in the sense of than, is 
sometimes used after the comparative degree (128), instead of quam ; as, 
Arctiws atque hedera procera adstringitur ilex, Hob. 



§ 121. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 

480. — Rule XXV. Verbs of plenty and scarce- 
ness, f< v the most part govern the ablative ; as, 

bundat dlvitiis, He abounds in riches. 

aret omni culpa, He has no fault. 



§ 122 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. 247 

481. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative after such verbs, may be go- 
verned by a preposition understood ; — sometimes it is expressed ; as, vacat 
a culp d. Or it may be used to limit the verb, by showing in what respect 
its meaning is to be taken; as, u he abounds in respect of riches." (See 
E. XXXIV.) Instances of this construction, however, are so common as tc 
warrant the rule here given. 

4b2. — Obs. 1. Verbs of plenty are such as, Abundo, affluo, exubero. 
redundo, suppedlto, scateo, <fec, of want, careo, egeo, indlgeo, vaco, deficior, 
destituor, <fcc. 

483. — Exc.l. Egeo, and indigeo, sometimes govern the genitive ; as, 
Eget ceris, "He needs money,'' Hor. ; Non tarn artis indigent, quam 
lab oris, Cic. So, also, some verbs denoting to fill, to abound, such as, 
abundo, careo, saturo, scateo. 

484. — Eule XXVI. Utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, 
potior, vescor, govern the ablative ; as, 

Utltur fraude, He uses deceit. 

Abutuur libris, He abuses books. • 

485. — Obs. 2. To these, add gaudeo, creor, nascor, fido, vivo, victito, 
consto, laboro (" to be ill ") ; pascor, epulor, nitor, (fee. 

486. — Exc. 2. Potior often governs the genitive; as, Potiri urbis, 
" To get possession of the city f Potiri rem m (never rebus), '• To possess 
the chief command." In such cases, the genitive may be governed by im- 
perio, understood. 

487. — Exc. 3. Potior, fungor, vescor, epulor, and pascor, sometimes 
govern the accusative; as, Potiri urbem, Cic. ; Officia fungi, <fcc. ; and also, 
in ancient writers, utor, abator, andfruor. Depasco and depascor have the 
accusative always. 

N. B. For the ablative of the adjunct, see § 106, R. VII. 
— For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty, or want, 
§ 107, Rule XI. ; — by verbs of loading, binding, &c., § 125 ; — 
by passive verbs, § 126, Rule V; — by a preposition, § 136. 
R. XLIX., LL, LII. 

For the ablative of limitation, see § 128 ; — of cause, man- 
lier, &c, § 129; — of the place where, § 180. Exc; — -from 
which, § 130. 3 ; — of time when, § 131, R. XL. ; — How long, 
R, XLI.;— of measure, § 132, R. XLII. ;— of excess, R. XLIIL; 
— of price, § 133; — in the case absolute, § 146, R. LX. 



§ 122. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
GENITIVE. 

488. — Many transitive verbs, with the accusative of the direct object, 
govern also another word, to which the action has an indirect or remote 



248 SYNTAX. — ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE. § 122 

reference, in the genitive, dative, accusative, or ablative, as the nature of 
that reference may require. All verbs under these rules, are transitive 
verbs in the active voice, or transitive deponents. 

489. — Rule XXVII. — Verbs of accusing, con- 
demning, acquitting, and admonishing, govern the 
accusative of a person, with the genitive of a 
tiring; as, 

Arguit me furti, He accuses me of theft. 

Meipsum inertice condemnor I condemn myself of laziness. 

Ilium hornicidii absolvunt, They acquit him of manslaughter 

Jrfonet me officii, He admonishes me of my duty. 

490. — To this rule belong verbs of — 

1. Accusing; as, accvso, ago, appello, arcesso, anqulro, arguo, coarguo 
capto, increpo, increpito, urgeo, incuso, insimulo. interrogo, postulo, alligo, 
astringo, defero, compello. 

2. Condemning ; as, damno, condemno, infdmo, note, convinco, prehendo, 
aeprehendo, judico, plector. 

'6. Acquitting ; as, absolvo, libero, purgo, and perhaps solvo. 

4. Admonishing; as, moneo, admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio. 

491. — Obs. 1. With many of these verbs, instead of the genitive of 
the crime or punishment, the ablative is used with, or without a preposi- 
tion ; as, Aceusare de neglig entid , Cic. ; Liber are culpa, Id. The 
ablatives crimine and nomvne are often inserted before the genitive, 
which may be regarded as the full form of the construction ; as, Arcessere 
aliquem crimine ambitus, Liv. Sometimes the punishment is put 
in the accusative after ad or in ; as, Damn are ad poena m, — i n met a l- 
lum, rarely in the dative; as, damnatus morti. Multo has always 
the ablative ; as, multare poena , pecuni a, exit Us , &c. 

492. — Obs. 2. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, together with verbs of ad- 
monishing, instead of the genitive, are sometimes followed by the accusative, 
especially of the neuter pronouns hoc, id, illud, quod, &c, and their plurals ; 
as, Si i d me non accusas, Plaut. ; Eos hoc moneo, ■ Cic. ; rarely by the 
accusative of nouns; as, Sic me insinadare f ahum f acinus, Plaut. 

493. — Obs. 3. Many verbs signifying to accuse, and among them some 
of the verbs enumerated under this rule, do not govern the genitive of the 
crime, but, as transitive active verbs, govern it in the accusative by Rule 
XX ; as, arguo culpa m ; ejus av arit i a m p e rfi d i a m que accusd- 
rat. When thus construed, the immediate object of condemnation is the 
crime ; in the other construction, it is the person. 

494. — Obs. 4. Verbs of admonishing, instead of the genitive, are some- 
times followed by the ablative with a prepositions as, Oro ut Terentiam 
monedtis de testament o; sometimes by an infinitive or clause; as. 
Soror monet succurrere Lauso Turn urn, Vino.; Monet ut suspi- 
ci<l nes vite t, O^es. ; Im mort alia ne speres monet annus, Hoe. 



§ 123 SYNTAX.- -ACCUSATIVE AND DATIVE. 249 

495. — Rule XXVIII. Verbs of valuing, with 
their own case, and sometimes without a case, go- 
vern such genitives of degree as magni, jyarvi, 
nil hit It '/ as, 

uFsftmo te magni, I value you much 

Mild stetit pluris, It cost me more. 

Est parvi, It is of little value. 

496. — EXPLANATION.— By its own case is meant the case which the 
verb usually governs. Verbs without case, as sum,jio, existo, &c, have the 
genitive only. The adjectives magni, parvi, &c, may agree with pretii, 
momenti, or the like, understood, and the construction perhaps come under 
E. VII. If so, it would account for the ablative sometimes used after tho 
same verbs. See 500. 

497. — Verbs of valuing are such as cestimo, existimo, duco, facio, habeo 
pendeo, puto, taxo, sum,fio, consto, &c. ; also refert and interest. 

498. — Among the genitives of degree governed by such verbs, are tha 
adjectives tanti, quanii, pluris, minoris, magni, pluruai, minimi, parvi. 
quantilibet, <fec, and the substantives assis,jlocci, nauci, pili, teruncii, hu- 
jus, &c. For the genitive of price, see 582. 

499. — Obs. 5. ^Eqni and boni are put in the genitive after facio aud 
consulo ; as, cequi b onl que facio, " I take this in good par tr 

500. — Obs. 6. Instead of the genitive, cestimo, and a few others, some- 
times take the ablative. Alter habeo, puto, duco, the ablative with pro 
is common ; as, p r o n i hilo puicire. Refert and interest, with their own 
case (415), often take nihil, or a neuter accusative, or an adverb, instead 
of the genitive, to express degree ; as, m e a nihil refert ; m ulti*m 
interest. So also nihil is used with cestimo and moror. 



§ 123. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 

DATIVE. 

501. — Rule XXIX. Verbs of comparing, giv- 
ing, declaring, and taking away, govern the ac- 
cusative and dative ; as, 

Compdro Virgilium Homero, I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Suum caique tribiiito, Give every man his own. 

ras fabulam *ardo, You tell a story to a deaf man. 

Eripuit me morti, He rescued me from death. 

50*2.- — EXPLANATION.— This is a rale of very extensive application. 
When, together with the thing done (expressed bv the transitive active verb 

11* 



250 SYNTAX. — TWO ACCUSATIVES. § 124 

and its accusative), we express also the remote object to which it is done, 
that object will be put in the dative ; thus, in the above examples, the verb 
and the accusative following it, express the whole of that which is representee? 
as done to, or with reference to, the object expressed in the dative ; i. e. com- 
paro Virgilium, expresses all here said to be done (Homero) to Homer, U ] 
compare Virgil to him." Narras fabiilam expresses all here said to be done 
(surdo) to the deaf man, " you tell a story to him ;" and so eripuit me, to- 
gether, express what is here done {morti) to death, u he rescued me from 
it;" and so of other examples. See this more fully illustrated, Gr. Gram., 
§ 152, Obs. 3, 

OBSERVATIONS. 

503. — Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, and some others, 
instead of the dative, often take a preposition and its case ; as, Comparare 
unam rem cum ali a, — a d a Ham , — r e s inter s e . JEripuit mf 
morti , — m orte , — a, or ex morte, <kc. 

504. — Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative, these verbs have frequently 
an infinitive mood or a part of a sentence ; as, Da mihi fa 11 ere, Reddes 
m ihi dulce lb qui , &c, Hon. ; P e rfa cile fa ctu esse Mis pro- 
bat ; Itemque Dumnorigi, ut idem conaretur persuadet, C^ss. This 
construction is especially common with such verbs as aio, dico, inquam, 
persuadeo, respondeo, &c, when the thing said, replied, &c, though a sen- 
tence or a paragraph, is to be regarded as the accusative, and the word 
denoting the person or persons to whom said, is put in the dative. 

505. — Obs. 3. Several verbs governing the accusative and dative are 
often construed differently ; as, cireumdare moenia oppldo, or oppidum 
mcembus, " to surround a city with walls ;" intercludere commeatum alien?, 
or aliquemcommeatic,"tomteTQe*pt one's provisions ;" induere, exuere vestem 
sibi, or, se vesti. So the following, Universos frumento dondvit, Nep. ; and 
Prccdam militibus donat, C^es. ; Aspergere sale carries, or, aspergere salem 
carnibus, Plin. 

50(3. — Obs. 4. The accusative is sometimes understood; as, Nubere 
alicui (sc. se.), Cedere alicui (sc. locum), detrahere alicui (sc. laudein), <kc. 

507. — Obs. 5. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, instead, 
of the dative, have an accusative after them, with the preposition ad; as, 
Ad prcetorem honvinem traxit. 



§ 124. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES, 

508. — Rule XXX. Verbs of asking, and teach* 
ing* govern two accusatives, the one of a person, 
and the other of a thing ; as, 

Poscimus te pilcem, We beg peace of thee. 

Docuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar 



§ 125 SYNTAX — ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 251 

509. — EXPLANATION.— The first accusative, under this rule, belongs 
to Rule XX., the second may be governed by a preposition understood ; or 
the reason of this rule may be, that most of the verbs under it, admit either 
of the nouns after them, as their immediate object. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

510. — Obs. 1. Verbs of asking, which govern two accusatives,, are 
rogo, oro, exoro, obsecro, precor, posco, reposco, flagito, (fee. ; of teaching, 
doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, erudio. To these, may be added, celo, to conceal'; as, 
Antigonus iter omnes celat, Nep. For two accusatives after verbs of 
naming, choosing, (fee, see 440. U 

511. — Obs. 2. Verbs of asking, instead of the accusative of the person, 
often take the ablative with ab or ex; as, Veniam oremus ab ipso. So, 
also, instead of the accusative of the thing, many verbs, both of asking and 
teaching, sometimes take the ablative with de ; as, De it in ere hostium 
senatian edocet, Sall. ; Sic ego ie eisdem de rebus interrogem. 

512. — Obs. 3. Some verbs of asking and teaching, are never followed 
by two accusatives, but by the ablative of the person, with a preposition ; 
such as, exigo, peto, qucero, scltor, sciscitor, and the following verbs of 
teaching, viz. : imbuo, instituo, instruo, and some others, are followed by 
the ablative of the thing, sometimes with, and sometimes without, a pre- 
position ; and sometimes they are otherwise construed. 

513. — Obs. 4. Many other transitive active verbs, frequently, besides 
the accusative of a person, take also an accusative of nihil, or of the neuter 
pronouns, hoc, id, quid, or of adjectives of quantity; as, Fabius ea me 
monuit, Cic. ; JS'ec te id consulo, Id. These verbs, however, in their 
signification, generally resemble verbs under this rule ; or the accusative 
of the thing may be governed by a preposition understood. 



§ 125. VEEBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE AND 
ABLATIVE. 

514. — Kttle XXXI. Verbs of loading, binding, 
clothing, depriving, and their contraries, govern 
the accusative and ablative ; as, 

Oner at naves auro, He loads the ships with gold. 

515. — EXPLANATION.— The accusative under this rule belongs to 
Hule XX. The ablative may be governed by a preposition understood 

OBSERVATIONS. 

516. — Obs. 1. Verbs of loading are onero, cumulo, prtmo, opprvno, 
obni<j, impleo, expleo, compleo ; — of unloading, leva, exonero, <fcc. ; — of bind- 
ing, astringo, ligo, alllgo, devincio, impedio, irretio, illaqueo, <fec. ; — of loos- 



252 SYNTAX. — PASSIVE VERBS. § 12$ 

ing, solvo, exsolvo, llbero, laxo, expedio, <fce. ; — of depriving, prlvo, nud<\ 
or bo, spoli o, frando, emungo ; — of clothing, vestio, amicio, induo, cingo^ 
ilgo, veto, vorono ; — of unclothing, exuo, discingo, <fcc. 

To these may be added many other verbs, such as muto, dono, munero 
remimero, communwg, pasco, beo, impertior, dignor, officio, prosequor, asse- 
quor, spargo, oblecto, &c, with which, however, in many cases, the ablative 
may come under Rules XXXIV. and XXXV. 

517. — Obs. 2. These verbs are sometimes followed by the ablative 
with a preposition expressed ; as, Solvere aliquem ex catenis, Cic. The 
ablative is sometimes understood; as, complet naves, sc. viris, Virg. 

518. — Obs. 3. Several of these verbs denoting to fill, likewise govern 
the genitive ; as, Adolescentem suce t e m e r it at is implet, " He fills the 
youth with his own rashness''' Some of them also vary their construction ; 
as, induit se vestibus, or, vestes sibi ; Abdicdre magistrdtum, Sall. ; Abdicdre 
se magistrate Cic. See 505. 



§ 126. CONSTRUCTION WITH PASSIVE VERBS. 

519. — Rule XXXII. Verbs that govern two 
cases in the active voice, govern the latter of 
these in the passive ; as, 

Accusor fu rti. I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius compardtur Homero. Virgil is compared to Homer. 

Doctor gramma tic am, I am taught grammar. 

Navu oneratur auro, The ship is loaded with gold. 

This rule may be subdivided into the five following, which will be much 
more convenient in practice, than the general rule. 

520. — I. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquitting, and ad- 
monishing, in the passive, govern the Genitive. 

52 i. — II. Verbs of valuing, in the passive, govern such 
genitives as magni, parvi, nihili, &c. 

522. — III. Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring and taking 
away, in trie pa sive, govern the dative. 

523. — IV. Verba of asking, and teaching, in the passive, 
govern the accusative. 

524. — V. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, depriving, and 
Iheir contraries, in the passive, govern the ablative. 

52D. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to the passives of all verbs 
under Rules XXVII to XXXI. inclusive. In all of these, the "latter case" 
at which, with the active v >ice, expresses the remote, and never the im- 
mediate object of the- verb. In all constructions under this rule, it must be 



§ 126 SYNTAX. — PASSIVE VEKBS. 258 

noticed, that that which was, or would be, the accusative after the verb in 
the active voice, must be its nominative in the passive, otherwise the con- 
struction does not belong to this rule. Thus, active, Narraa fa bid am 
surdo; passive, Narraiur fab it la surdo. Here, fabidam, the direct object 
of narraSy is changed into the nominative or subject of narratur ; and surdo 
remains the same in both sentences. The " latter case," in other words, the 
remote oVject of the active voice is never, in Latin, converted into the 
subject of the passive, except in a few instances, which are manifest Grse- 
cisms. See Greek Gram., § 154, Obs. 2. In English, however, there are 
some expressions in which this is allowed. See An. & Pr. Eng. Gr., 814. 

Hence, where, in some cases, the Greek and the English idioms admit 
of two forms of expression, the Latin admits of onlj one, e. g. " This was 
told to me," or, "I was told this," is rendered, into Latin by the first form : 
thus, Hoc mihi dictum est. But we cannot say, according to the second 
form, Hoc dictus sum. 

526. — Exc. to R. V. In poetical language, with the passive verbs in- 
duor, amicior, cingor, accingor, exuor, discingor, the accusative of the 
article of dress, <kc, is often used, instead of the ablative. Thus, instead 
of induor veste, the poets frequently say, induor v e stem. Hence the 
expressions, Induitur facie in cult am que Didnce, Ovid; Induiturque 
aures aselli, Id.; Inutile ferritin cingltur, Virg. ; Pueri Icevo suspensi 
loc a I os tabulam que lacerto y Hon. This resembles the Greek ac- 
cusative, 538, 539. 

527. — Obs. 1. When the active voice is followed by three cases (431), 
the passive has the two last; as, hoc missum est mihi muneri, " this 
was sent as a present to me." Here muneri is the dative of the end. 
R. XIX. 

528. — Rule XXXIII. Passive verbs frequently 
govern the dative of the doer ; as, 

Vix audior ulli, I am scarcely heard by any one. 

Scriberis Vario, You shall be described by Varius. 

%T 77 x_. . , . _ ( None of your sisters have been 

A it It a audita mini sororum. ■{ ■, -, Hi 

' ( heard ol by rue. 

529. — EXPLANATION.— This construction is used chiefly by the poets, 
and by them, as a substitute for another still more common; namely, that the 
voluntary agent, after the passive voice, is put in the ablative with a, or ab, 
and so comes under Rule XL1X. as (in the active voice), Clodius me dilxgit, 
" Clodius loves me:" (in the passive), A Clodio diligor, " I am loved by 
Clodius." The preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, colitvr liniger a liirbd. 

530.- — Obs. 2. After passive verbs, the principal agent or actor ia 

usually expressed in the ablative with the preposition a or ab ; as, lauda- 

a h h i s , culpatur ab i I lis , "he is praised by these, he is blamed 

But, 

Th< secotidary agent, means, or instrument, after transitive verbs in the 

active or passive voice, or after intransitive verbs, is put in the accusative 



254 SYNTAX. — CIRCCMSTANCES. — LIMITATION. § 127-8 

with, per ; as, Per Th rasybulum Lyci filium, ab exercitu recipltur, 
Nep. ; but oftener in the ablative, by Rule XXXV. 

531. — Obs. 3. The passive participle in dus has the agent or doer al- 
most always in the dative; and besides, when it agrees with the subject 
of a sentence, conveys the idea of obligation or necessity ; as, Stmel 
om nib us c ale an da est via leti. " The way of death (is to be, i. e.) 
must once be trod by all" Hor. ; Adhibenda est nobis diligentia, 
" Diligence must be used by us " (i. e. we must use diligence), Cic. ; C a sari 
omnia uno tempore erant agenda, "All things had to be done by 
Cazsar at one time." 182-6. 

532. — Obs. 4. The accusative of place or time, after intransitives in 
the passive voice, is not governed by the verb, but by a preposition under- 
stood, or comes under other rules ; as, ttur A then as , Rule XXXVII. ■ 
pugncdum est biduum, R. XLI. ; dormltur totam noctem, R. XLL 
VVe find, however, Tota mihi dormltur hyems ; Nodes vigilantur amarai ; 
Oceanus aditur, Tac. 



§ 127. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

533. —In order to express some circumstance connected with the idea 
of the simple sentence, words and phrases are often thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence in an adverbial manner, and which do not depend 
for their case on any word in the sentence to which they belong, but on a 
preposition, or adverb, or other word, understood; or are, by common 
usage, put in a particular case in certain circumstances, without govern- 
ment or dependence on any words either expressed or understood. 

To this may be referred circumstances : 1. Of limitation ; — 2= Of cause, 
manner, <fcc ; — 3. Of place ; — 4. Of time ; — 5. Of measure ; — 6. Of price ; 
as follows. 



§ 128. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 

5o4. — A particular qualification of a general expression, made in 
English by the phrase " in respect of," " with regard to," is expressed in 
Latin by the ablative, or, more briefly as follows : 

535. — Kule XXXIV. Respect wherein, and the 
part affected are expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Pietate jilius, In affection a son. 

Jure perltus, Skilled in law, 

P ed\bus o2ger, Lame in his feet. 

536. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative, under tnis rule, Is used, to limit 
the signification of noir s, adjectives, and verb.* *?aJ. may be various!) 1 



§ 129 SYNTAX.— CIRCUMSTANCES. — CAUSE, &C. 255 

rendered to express the nature of the limitation intended; as, in, in respect 
of, with respect to, with regard to, &c. 

537. — Obs. 1. The part affected, after adjectives and verbs, belongs to 
this rule, containing, as it does, a similar limitation of a general expres- 
sion, as in the last of the examples above. The following are of a similar 
character: Anxius an into, Tag.; Crlne ruber; ore niger, Mart.; 
Contrem isco totd m ente et omnibus ar tubus, Cic. ; A n i m 6 que et 
cor pore torpet, Hor. 

538. — Exc. 1. The part affected, in imitation of a Greek construction, 
^s sometimes expressed in the accusative ; as, Nudus membra, " Bare 
as to his limbs," Yirg. So, sibila coll a tumentem, Id.; expAeri 
m ente m nequit, Id. ; fractus m e in bra, Hor. ; temp or a cinctus, 
Virg. This construction is in imitation of the Greek. See Gr. Gram., 
§ 157, Obs. 1. 

539. — Exc. 2. In like manner, a noun or pronoun, denoting 
that in regard to which, or with respect to which, any thing is, 
is said, or is done, is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, 
Nunc ill os qui in urbe remanserunt, " Now, in regard to those 
who remained in the city;" Quod reliquum est, u As to that 
which remains."' 

This construction is quite common with such accusatives as id, hoc, 
al'tquid, reliqua, ccetera, magnam partem, maximum 'partem, and the like ; 
as, r el i qua similis ; ccetera egregium ; meos libros m a g n a m p a r- 
tem amlsi, tfcc. In such constructions, ad, meaning " in regard to," " in 
respect of," " as to," (Andrews' Lexicon, D. 1), is probably understood. 

540. — Exc. 3. After certain adjectives and verbs denoting 

an affection or state of mind, respect wherein, or the part 

affected, is, in imitation of the Greek, expressed in the genitive: 

teger vltce ; diver sus m o r u m ; discrucior a n imi ; ani rn i 

pendeo ; recredbar animi. See also 371. 

541. — Obs. 2. To this rule may be referred the matter of which any 
thing is made ; as, cere cavo clypeus, " a shield of hollow brass." But here 
the preposition is commonly expressed; as, templum de marmore. In 
imitation of the Greeks, the matter is sometimes put in the genitive ; as, 
crateres argcnti, <w goblets of silver." Gr. Gram., § 156, Obs. 3. 



§ 129. THE ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNER, &c. 

542. — Eule XXXV. The cause, manner, means, 
and instrument, are put in the ablative ; as, 

Palleo m etu, I am pale for fear. 

Fecit s a o m ore , He did it after his own way. 

•o o stro que decori, Decked with gold and purple. 

"%ho e a tdmo, I write with a pen. 



256 SYNTAX. — CIRCUMSTANCES. — PLACE. § 130 

543. — EXPLANATION.— The ablative, in this rule, is probably govern- 
ed by a preposition understood, — as there are numerous instances in which 
the preposition is expressed. The cause will be known by putting the ques- 
tion, "Why?"' or "Wherefore?" the marine?*, by "How?" the means, by 
"By what means ?" the instrument, by " Wherewith?" 

544. — Obs. 1. The cause sometimes takes the prepositions per, prop- 
ter, ob, with the accusative ; or de, e, ex, prce, with the ablative ; as, de 
pulsus per invidia m ; fessus de via. 

545. — Obs. 2. The manner is sometimes expressed by a, ab, cum, de t 
ex, per ; as, dc more suo ; — the means frequently by per, and cum ; as, cum 
meis cop/is omriibus vexavi Amanienses. See 530. 

546. — Obs. 3. The instrument, properly so called, seldom admits a 
preposition, though, among the poets, a, ab, de, sub, are sometimes used , 
as, pectora trajectus ab ense ; exercere solum sub v omere . 



§ 130. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 

547. — The circumstances of place maybe reduced to four particulars: 
1. The place where, or in which; — 2. The place whither, or to which; — 
3. The place wlicnce, or from which ; — 4. The place by, or through which, 

X. B. The following rules respecting place, refer chiefly to the names 
of towns. Sometimes, though very seldom, the names of countries, pro- 
vinces, islands, <fec, are construed in the same way. W r ith these, however, 
the preposition is commonly added. 

1. The place where, or in which. 

548. — Rule XXXVI. The name of a town, de- 
noting the place where, or, in which, is put in tlie 
genitive ; as, 

Vixit R 5 in ce , He lived at Rome. 

Mortuus est Mi leti, He died at Miletus. 

549. — Exc. But if the name of the town %ohere, 
or in lohich, is of the third declension, or plura] 
number, it is expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Habitat Carthagine, He dwells at Carthage. 

Studult At hen is, He studied at Athens. 

550. — Obs. 1. When the name of a town is joined with an adjective, 
or common noun in apposition, a preposition is commonly added; as. Rot/ice 
in celebri urbe ; or, in Roma celebri nrb<' ; ov,in Roma celebri iirbe ; or 
sometimes, Romce celcbri urbe. 262. 

Note. — In this const' net ion, the name of a town, in the third declension 



§ 130 SYNTAX. — CIRCUMSTANCES. — PLACE. 257 

frequently Las the ablative singular in i; as, Habitat Carlhagini. Fuere 
mijamdiu Dionysia, Plaut. ; Tibiiri gemtus, Scet. 

551. — Obs. 2. The name of the town where, or in which, is sometimes, 
though rarely, put in the ablative when it is of the first or second declen- 
sion ; as, Ty r o rex decessit, for Tyri, " The king died at Tyre" Just.; IIujus 
exemplar Romd nullum habemus, Vitruv. 

552. — Obs. 3. The preposition in is sometimes expressed before the 
ablative; as, In Philip pis quldam nuncidvit, Suet. At, or near a 
place is expressed by ad, or dpud with the accusative ; as, ad, or apud 
Trojam, " at, or near Troy* 

2. The place whither, or to which. 

553.— Rule XXXVII. The name of a town 
denoting the place whither, or to which, is put in 
the accusative; as, 

Venit II 6 m a m , He came to Home 

Profectus est At hen as , He went to Athens. 

554. — Obs. 4. Among the poets, the town to which is sometimes put 
in the dative ; as, Carthagi?ii nuncios mittam, Hor. 

555. — Obs. 5. After verbs of telling, and giving, when motion to ia 
implied, the name of a town is sometimes put in the accusative ; as, R 6- 
m a m erat nunciatum, " The report was carried to Rome ;" Me ssana m 
literas dedit. 

3. The place whence, or fkom which. 

556.— Eule XXXVIII. The name of a town 
whence qy from which, by or through tohich, is 
put in the ablative ; as, 

Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corinth. 

Laodiced iter fecit, He went through Laodicea. 

557. — Obs. 6. The place by or through which, however, is commonly 
put in the accusative with per ; as-, Per Th ebas iter fecit, Nep. 

4. Donius and rus. 

558. — Rule XXXIX. Domus and rus are 
construed in the same way as names of towns ; as, 

Manet do mi (548), He stays at home. 

Do mum revertvtur (553), He returns home. 

Do mo arcessltus sum (556), I am called from home. 

So also 

V'ait rure or ruri (548), He lives in the country. 

Abiit rus (,V He is gone to the country. 

Rediit rilre(556). He has returned from the country. 



258 SYNTAX. — CIRCUMSTANCES. — TIME. § 131 

559. — Obs. h i. Humi, militice, and belli, are likewise constiued in the 
genitive like names of towns ; as, jacet humi, " he lies on the ground ;" 
domi et militia (or belli), " at home or abroad." 

560. — Obs. 8. When domus is joined with an adjective, the preposition 
is commonly used ; as, in domo patemd. So, ad domum patemam, ex 
do/no patemd. — Except with mens, tuus, suus, noster, vester, regius, and 
alienus ; then it follows the rule. When domus has another substantive 
after it in the genitive, it may be with, or without, a preposition ; as, de- 
prehensus est domi, domo, or in domo Ccesaris. 

561. — Obs. 9. Rus, and rure, in the singular, joined with an adjective 
are used with, or without, a preposition. But rura, in the plural, is nevei 
without it. 

562. — Obs. 10. The names of countries, provinces, and all other places 
except towns, are commonly construed with a preposition ; as, ndtus i n 
Italia; abiit in I tali am; rediit ex Italia; transit per Ita- 
lia m, (fee. A few cases occur, however, in which names of countries, pro- 
vinces, <fec, are construed like the names of towns, without a preposition 
as, Pompeius Oypri vlsus est, <fcc, C^es. 

563. — Peto, " I seek," or "go to," always governs the accusative as a 
transitive active verb, without a preposition ; as, Petlvit Egyptum, " He 
went to Egypt." 

564. — Obs. 11. The word containing an answer to the question 
ivhither? is often put by the poets in the accusative without a preposition; 
as, Speluncam Dido dux et Trojanus eandem deveniunt, Virg. Likewise, the 
answer to the question where? or whence? in the ablative, without a pre- 
position; as, Silvisque ag risque v Usque corpora fceda jdcent. So, 
cadere nubibus ; descender e coelo ; cur rus car cerxbus missi. See 611. 



§ 131. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME, 

565. — Eule XL. Time wlien, is put in the 
alblative ; as, 

Venit hord terlid t He came at the third hour. 

Rule XLI. Time how long, is put in the accu- 
sative, or ablative; as, 

Mansit paucos dies, He staid a few days. 

Sex men sib us abfuit, He was absent six months. 

566. — EXPLANATION. — A precise period or point of time, is usually 
put in the ablative, — continuance of time, not marked with precision, for the 
most part, in the accusative. 

567. — Note* — It must be observed here, that the point of time under 
this rule, must coincide Tyith the time of the verb with which it is connect- 



§ 132 SYNTAX. — CIRCUMSTANCES. — MEASURE. 259 

ed ; otherwise, the rule does uot hold good ; — thus, " He invited me to dine 
with him next day,'" is properly rendered under this rule : Serum postero 
die ul pranderem invitavit; because postero die and pranderem are 
cotemporary. But, if we change the verb pranderem for a noun, postero 
die will not do in the ablative, but must be changed thus; ad prandium 
me invitavit in poster um diem. Postero die, in this sentence, would 
mean that the invitation was given next day, and would be rendered, in 
English, " Next day, he invited me to dinner." 

OBSERVATIONS. 

568. — Obs. 1. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with 
a preposition; such as, in, de, ad, ante, circa, per, efce. Sometimes ad, ov 
circa, is understood before hoe, Mud, id, isthuc, with cetdiis, temporis, 
horcf., <fcc, following in the genitive ; as, {ad) id temporis, for eo tempore, <fcc. 

569. — Obs. 2. Precise time, before or after another fixed time, is ex 
pressed by aide, or post, regarded as adverbs, either with the accusative 
or ablative ; as, aliquot ante annos ; paucis ante diebus ; paucos post dies, c:c. 

570. — Sometimes quam, with a verb, is added to ante, or post ; as, 
Paucis post diebus quam Luca discesserat, "A few days after he had 
departed from Luca/' Sometimes post is omitted before quam; as, Pie 
vigexima quam credtus erat. 

^5/1. — Obs. 3. Instead of post quam, we sometimes find ex quo, or 
qruian, or a relative agreeing with the preceding ablative; as, Oeto diebus 
quibus has literas ddbam, " Eight days after I gave these letters." 

572. — Obs. 4. The adverb abhinc is used to express past time, joined 
with the accusative or ablative, without a preposition ; as, Factum est a b 
hinc biennio, or biennium, " It was done two years ago? 



§ 132. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 

573. — Rule XLII. Measure or distance is put 
in the accusative, and sometimes in the abla- 
tive; as, 

Murus est decern pedes altus, The wall is ten. feet high. 

Urb* dislat triginta mill i a, or > The d . ^ ^ tf 

triginta mil lions passuum, ) 
Iter, or i tin ere unius diei, One day's journey. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

574.— Ob*s. 1. The accusative or ablative of measure, is put after such 
adjectives, and verbs of dimension, as longus, latus, crassus, profundus, 
altus ; Pdtet, porrigiiur, eniinet, &a. The names of measure are pes, 
cubitus, ulnus, digitus, pahnus, mille passuum, a mile, &c. 

575. — Obs. 2. The accusative or ablative of distance, is used only 
after verbs which express motion or distance ; as, eo, en, ro, duco, absum % 



260 SYNTAX. — CIRCUMSTANCES. — PRICE. § 133 

disto, &g. The accusative, under this rule, may be governed by ad or per, 
understood, and the ablative by a, or ab. 

576. — Obs. 3. When the measure of more things than one is expressed, 
the distributive numeral is commonly used; as, Muri sunt denos pedes 
alti, " The walls are each ten feet high." Sometimes dlnum pedum, for 
denorum, is used in the genitive, governed by ad menswram, understood. 
But the genitive is used to express the measure of things in the plural only 

577. — Obs. 4. The distance of the place where any thing is said to be 
done, is usually expressed in the ablative or in the accusative with a prepo- 
sition ; as, 8 e x mi I lib us passuum ab urbe consedit ; or a d sex mil li a 
passwmn. C^es. 

578. — Obs. 5. Sometimes the place from which distance is estimated 
js not expressed, though the preposition governing it is, and may be ren- 
dered off, distant, &c, as, Ab sex millibus passuum abfuit; "He was six 
miles off, or distant" (scil. Romd, from Rome). 

579. — Rule XLIII. The measure of excess or 
deficiency, is put in the ablative ; as, 

Sesquipede longior, Taller by a foot and a half. 

Novem pedibus minor, Less by nine feet. 

Quant o doctior, tan to submis- The more learned, the more humble. 
si or, 

580. — Obs. 6. To this rule are to be referred the ablatives tan to, quanto, 
quo, eo, hoc, aliquanto, multo, paulo, mhilo, <fcc, frequently joined to com- 
paratives, and sometimes to superlatives. 



§ 133. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PRICE. 

581. — Kule XLIV. The price of a thing is put 
in the ablative ; as, 

Constitit talento, It cost a talent 

Vendidit hie auro patriam, This man sold his country for gold. 

582. — Exc. But tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, are used in th'e 
genitive ; as, 

Quanti cmistitit ? How much cost it ? 

Non vendo pluris quam cceteri, I do not sell for more than others. 

583. — Obs. 1. When joined with a noun, tanti, quanti. <tc, are put in 
the ablative ; as, Quam tartto pretio meredtus est. Tanto, quanto, and 
plur°, are sometimes, though rarely, found without a noun; as, plurc 
venit, " it is sold for more'.' 

584. — Obs. 2. The ablative of price is often an adjective without a 
noun; as, maf/uo, per magno, parvo, paululo, miramo, plurfy&o, vili, nimio. 
These refer, however, to some such noun as pretio, cere, <fec, understood 
Valeo is found with an accusative. 



§ 134 SYNTAX. — ADVERBS. 261 

§ 134. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

585. — Eule XLV. Adverbs are joined to verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs, to modify and limit 
their signification ; as, 

Bene scrlbit, He writes well. 

Fortiter pugnans, Fighting bravely. 

Egregie jidelis, Remarkably faithful. 

Satis bene, Well enough. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

5b6. — Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes joined with nouns ; as, Homerus 
plane orator, " Homer evidently an orator." 

587; — Obs. 2. The adverb is usually placed near the word modified or 
ed by it. 

Negatives. 

588. — Obs. 3. Two negatives in Latin, as well as in English, destroy 
each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative; as, Nee n o n senserunt, 

" nor did they not perceive ;" i. e. et senserunt, " and they did perceive." 
So, Xon poteram non exanimdri metu. Cic. Non sum nescius, i. e. scio ; 
hand nihil est, " it is not nothing," i. e. " it is something ;" nonnidli, " not 
none," i. e. " some ;" nonnunquam, "n$t never," i. e. " sometimes ;" non nemo, 
" not nobody," i. e. " somebody," <fec. 

589. — Obs. 4. Exc. In imitation of the Greeks, however, two negatives 
in Latin, as well as in English, sometimes make a stronger negative ; as, 
Neque Me hand objiciet mihi, ''He will not by any means object to 
me ;" Jura, te n o n nociturum homini nem ini , <fcc. Neque, and nee, and 
sometimes non, are especially thus used after a negative ; as, Non me 
car mi nlbus vincet, nee Orpheus, nee Linus. 

590. — Obs. 5. Non is sometimes omitted after non modo, or non solum, 
wh^n followed in a subsequent clause by ne quidem ; as, Mihi non modo 
irasei, (i e. non irasci,) sed ne dolere qiadem impune licet. Sometimes, but 
rarely, it is omitted after sed, or varum, with etiam ; as, Non modo ea fu- 
tura timet (i. e. non timet,) verum etiam fert sustinetque prcesentia. F< : 
ne, and ut, with iimeo, <fcc, see 633. 

591 . — Obs. 6. Certain adverbs are joined to adjectives, and also to ad- 
verbs, in all the degrees of comparison, for the purpose of imparting greater 
force to their signification ; as, 

1st To the positive are joined such adverbs as, apprlme, admbdum. ve- 
hementer, maxune, perquam, valde, oppido, and per, in composition ; as, grd- 
tunt a 'I m b d u m , M very agreeable ;" perquam puerile, " very childish :"' 
<tc. In like manner, parum, multum, nimium, tantum, quantum, aliqitan- 
tum ; u in firifi us ; mult u m bo?ius. 

2d. To the comparative are joined, paulo, nimio, aliquanto, eo, quo, hoc, 
iMlo; as, Eo gyavior est dolor quo culpa major. — Cic. See 
580. Sometimes, also, parum, multum, <fec., as with the positive. 



262 SYNTAX. — ADVERBS. § 135 

3d. To the superlative are joined, longe, quam, facile, meaning " certain- 
ly ," " undoubtedly ;" also tanto, quanto, rnulio, (fee. ; as, Fa cite doctissimus, 
" certainly the most learned;" longe bellicosissima (sc.gens), " by far the 
most warlike ;" qna m m aximas potest copias armat, " he arms as 
great forces as possible! 1 

4th. Quam, (and also ut,) is also used as an intensive word with the 
positive, but in a sense somewhat different, resembling an exclamation ; as, 
Quam difficile est! "how difficult it is!' 1 quam, or ut crudelis! "how 
cruel l"Flens quam fa miliar iter , " weeping how affectionately" i. e. 
very affectionately ; quam severe, " how severely," i. e. very severely. 



§ 135. CASES GOVERNED BY ADVERBS. 

592. — Rule XL VI. Some adverbs of time^lace^ 
and quantity, govern the genitive ; as, 

Pridie ejus diei, The day before that day. 

Ublque gentium, Every where. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

59o. — 1. Adverbs of time governing the genitive are, interea, postea, 
in.de, tunc ; as, Interea loci, " in the mean time ;" postea loci, " afterwards ;" 
hide loci, "then;" tunc temporis, "at that time." 

594. — 2. Of place, Ubi, and quo, with their compounds, ubique, ubi 
cunque, ubiubi, quovis, (fee. Also, eo, hue, huccine, unde, usquam, nusquam, 
longe, ibidem, (fee; as, unde terrdrum or gentium; longe gentium; ibidem 
loci. Also, hue, eo, and quo, expressing degree ; as, Eo audacice, — vecor- 
dioe — miseridrum, (fee., '• to that pitch of boldness — madness — misery," (fee. 

595. — 3. Of quantity, abunde, affdtim, largiter, nimis, satis, parum, 
mimme; as, abunde glorice ; affdtim divitidrum ; largiter aicri ; satis elo- 
quentice; sapi entice par u?n est illi, or habet, " He has enough of glory, riches," 
(fee. nihiime gentium, " by no means." 

596. — Obs. 1. Ergo (for the sake of), instar, and partim, also govern 
the genitive ; as, dondri virtutis ergo. 

597. — Obs. 2. Pridie and postridie, govern the genitive or accusative ; 
as, Pridie Kalenddrum, or pridie Kalendas, sup. ante ; Postridie Kalendd- 
rum, or Kalendas, sup. post. 

598. — Obs. S. En and Ecce govern the nominative or accusative; as* 
En causa; Ecce homo or hominem, sometimes a dative is added; as, Ecce 
duas dras tibi. Virg. In such constructions, a verb may be understood. 
The dative may be referred to, 377-3. 

599. — Obs. 4. Certain prepositions used adverbially by the poets, are 
followed by the dative ; as, Mihi clam est, " it is unknown to me." Contra 
nobis. 



§ 136 SYNTAX — PKEPOSITIONS. 263 

600 — Rule XL VII. Some derivative adverbs 
govern the case of their primitives ; as, 

Omnium op time loquitur, He speaks the best of all. 

Co n veil tenter naturae, Agreeably to nature. 

i '■';, it obviam e i , He came to meet him. 

P r o xime cast ri s or castra, Next the camp. 

601. — EXPLANATION. — In the first example, optime is derived from 
optimus, which governs the genitive by Kule X. 355. Convenienter and obvi- 
am, are derived from conveniens, and obvius, which govern the dative by 
Kule XVI. 3S2 ; and proxime is derived from proximus ) which governs the 
dative or accusative. (388.) 



§ 136. CASES GOVERNED BY PREPOSITIONS. 

602. — Rule XL VIII. Twenty-eight preposi- 
tions, ad, ft/pud^ ante, &c, govern the accusative ; 
as, 

Ad patrem, To the father. 

603. — Rule XLIX. Fifteen prepositions a, ah, 
obs, &c, govern the ablative ; as, 

A patre, From the father. 

604. — EXPLANATION. — The twenty-eight prepositions which govern 
the accusative are those contained in the list 220-1, and the fifteen govern- 
ing the ablative are those in 220-2. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

605. — Obs. 1. Clam, one of these fifteen, is sometimes followed by 
the accusative ; as, clam vos, " without your knowledge/' When followed by 
a genitive or dative, a substantive may be understood, or it may be re 
garded as an adverb ; as, clam patris. Ter. mihi clam est. Plaut. 

60b. — Obs. 2. Tenus after a plural noun, commonly governs it in' the 
genitive ; as, crurum tenus. Virg. 

607. — Rule L. The prepositions in] sub, super, 
and suiter, denoting motion to, or tendency towards, 
govern the accusative ; as, 

Yenit in Urbem, He came into the city. 

Amor in te, Love towards thee. 

Sub jugum missus t U, He was sent under the yoke. 

Incidit super agmina It fell upon the troops. * 



264 SYNTAX.— PEEPOSITIONS. § 136 

608. — Rule LI. The prepositions in and sub 
denoting situation, govern the ablative ; super and 
subter either the accusative or ablative ; as, 

Jacet in terra, He lies upon the ground. 

Medici in urbe, In the middle of the city. 

Inpoetis, Among the poets. 

Sub mcenlbus, Under the walls. 

609. — Obs. 3. To both of these rules there are some exceptions. In- 
stances occur in which in and sub denoting motion to, or tendency towards, 
instead of the accusative, govern the ablative; as, In conspectu meo 
audet ventre ; sub jug o dictator hostem misit. Others are found in which 
they govern the accusative when they denote situation; as, Mihi in 
on ente m fuit. Hastes sub mont e m consedisse, (fee. 

610. — Obs. 4. The preposition in with the accusative, usually signifies 
into, towards, until, for, against ; with the ablative in, upon, among. 
With both these cases, however, considerable variety of translation is 
necessary to convey correctly the idea of the original. The following 
are instances, " In the case of," talis in hoste fuit Priamo. Virg. " On 
account of," in quo facto domum revoedtus ; — In sex mensibus, "within 
six months ;" in dies, " from day to day." So, in horas, " from hour tc 
hour ;" in capita, "per head;" in pueritia, " during boyhood ;" in hoc tem- 
pore, " at this time," <fec. 

611 . — Obs. 5. The preposition is frequently understood before its case ■ 
as, devenere locos. Virg. homo id cetdtis. Cio. propior montem. Saizl. 
in which ad is understood. So, Nunc id prodeo, sc. ob ; — Ter. Maria 
aspera juro, sc. per. Se loco mover e, sc. e, or de. Quid Mo facias ? sc. in oi 
de, " what can you do in this case ?" TJt patrid expelleretur, sc. ex. Nef. 

612 — Obs. 6. Sometimes, but much more rarely, the case is omitted 
after the preposition ; as, circum Ooncordice, sc. cedem. Sall. multis post 
annis, i. e. post id tempus. 

613. — Rule LII. A preposition in composition 
often governs its own case ; as, 

Adedmus urbem, Let us go to the city. 

JExedmus urbe, Let us go out of the city. 

614. — EXPLANATION.— By "its own case" is meant the case it gov- 
erns when not in composition. This rule only takes place when the prepo- 
sition may be separated from the verb, and placed before the case without 
altering the sense. Thus, adedmus urbem, and edmus ad urbem, express 
the same thing. 

615. — &bs. 7. The preposition is often repented after the compound 
word; the case is then governed by the preposition repeated; as, ex na~ 
vibus expositi. C^es. Nunquam accedo ad te, quin obs te abeam doctior. Ter. 

Note. — Some verbs never have the preposition repeated after them ; such 
as, Affdris, ailoguor, allatro, alluo, accdlo ; circum witli venio, eo, sto, sedo 



§ 137 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. — TENSES. 265 

volo ; obeo % proetereo, abdico, effero, everto, (fee. Some compounds with inter, 
and prater, commonly omit the preposition. The compounds of in, ob, and 
sub, generally take the dative ; those of super, generally the accusative. 

016. — Obs. 8. Some verbs compounded with e, or ex, are followed by 
an accusative or ablative ; as, exlre llmen. Ter. exlre septis. Virg. Some 
words compounded with prce, take an accusative ; as, Tlbur aquce prce- 
fluunt. Hor. In some of these cases, however, the accusative may be 
governed by prater or extra, understood. 

617. — Obs. 9. The case governed by the preposition in composition is 
sometimes omitted ; as, Emittere servum, sc. manu. Plaut. Evomere virus, 
sc. ore. Cic. Educere copias, sc. castris. (Les. 

For the construction of interjections, see § 117. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

§ 137. CONNECTION OF TENSES. \ 

618. — The tenses in the indicative and subjunctive moods, so far as 
relates to their construction, may be divided into two classes, Primary and 
becondarj, as follows, 

Primary. Secondary. 

Present Imperfect. 

Perfect definite. 162. . Terfect indefinite. 163. 
Futures. Pluperfect. 

With the primary tenses may be classed, the Imperative Mood. 

Of these tenses, the Primary are used to express actions, (fee, as present 
or future ; the Secondary, in the recital of these actions as past. 

In the construction of sentences consisting of different members, the 
subjunctive mood, in the subordinate or secondary parts, usually corre- 
sponds, in time, to the tense in the primary, or leading part. Hence the fol- 
lowing Rule. 

619. — Rule LIII. Any tense of the subjunctive 
mood, may follow a tense of the same class in 
the indicative ; as, 

Pres. Lego, \ I read, 

Perf. Def. Legi, v ut discam, I have read, \ that I may learn. 



id, \\ 



Fut. . Leg am, ) I will read, 

Imper. Lege, ut disc-as, Read, that you may learn. 

Lmterf. Legebam, J I was reading, ) 

Per. Indef. Legi, v ut discerem, I read, j- that I might learn, 

Plup. Legeram, ) I had read, ) 

12 



260 SYNTAX. — MOODS. §138 

620, — EXPLANATION. — In clauses connected, the present, the perfect, 
and periphrastic future with sim or fuerim, 214-8, in the subjunctive mood, 
may follow either the present, or the perfect definite, or the futures, of the 
indicative, or the imperative mood. In like manner, the imperfect, the 
pluperfect, and the periphrastic future with essem or fuissem, in the subjunc- 
tive mood, may follow either the imperfect, or the perfect indefinite, or the 
pluperfect in the indicative. 

621. — Obs. 1. When the present tense of the indicative is used in nar- 
ration for the past, 157-3, it may be followed by the secondary tenses of 
the subjunctive, as Legatos mittunt at pdeem impetr arent. 

622. — Obs. 2. Primary tenses are sometimes followed by secondary, 
and secondary by primary, in order to express actions whose time is dif- 
ferent. 

623. — Obs. 3. When the subjunctive follows an infinitive or participle 
in the primary clause, the class of tenses employed, usually corresponds 
to the time of the verb on which the infinitive or participle depends. 

N. B. This rule and the observations under it, are to be regarded as 
stating only general principles, the deviations from which, in expressing 
the endless variety of relations among actions with, reference to time, de- 
pendence, &c, can be learned only by practice and close attention to classic 
usage. 

For the interchange of tenses in the same and in different moods, see 
observations on the tenses, §§44 and 45. 



624.— § 138. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INDICATIVE 
MOOD. 

1. The indicative mood is used in Latin, to express what is 
actual and certain, in an absolute and independent manner ; 
as, veni, vidi, vlci, " I came, saw, and conquered." It is also 
used in direct and independent interrogations ; as, Quid dgis ? 
" what are you doing ?" 

2. The indicative mood is used in conditional and dependent 
clauses, to denote, not what is contingent or uncertain, but 
what is supposed, or admitted as fact ; as, Si vales , bene est, 
"if you are in health, it is well," i. e. "since you are in 
health." 

3. Independent assertions made in English by. shall, will, can, 
may, ought, and the like, are made in Latin by the indicative 
of verbs expressing these ideas ; as, volumus Ire, " we will 
go," deles facere, u you ought to do it," 147. hi general, the 
verbs oportet, necesse est, debeo, convenit, possum, licet ; — also, 
the expressions par, fas, cequum, justum, consentaneum est ; — 



§ 139 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 267 

and cequius^ melius, utilius, optabilius est, are put in the past 
teuses of the indicative, though translated by the imperfect or 
pluperfect subjunctive. Hence, 

4. The indicative is used in the sense of the subjunctive, 
and translated by the potential in English, when an act, &c, 
though not performed, is expressed as what would have been 
proper, practicable, or advantageous ; as, Miloni optabilius 
fa it dare jugulum P. Clodio ; "it would have been more de- 
sirable;' &c, 1G4-4. 

5. Tte past tenses of the indicative, are sometimes used 
for the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive, in the conclusion 
of a conditional clause, by which the description is rendered 
more animated ; as, pons subliciusiter hosfibus dedit, ni, &c. 
" the wooden bridge would have afforded a passage to the 
enemy, unless" &c; so, actum erect de pulcherrimo imperio, 
nisi, &c, 140 and 625-4th. 

The signification and use of this mood, in its several tenses, are specified, 
§44. 



§ 139. CONSTRUCTION OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
MOOD. 

[For the character and meaning of this mood, in its several tenses, see 
§ 42. II. and § 45.] 

The subjunctive mood is used sometimes in in- 
dependent, but, for the most part, in dependent 
propositions. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN INDEPENDENT PROPO- 
SITIONS. 

625. The subjunctive mood is used, apparently at least, in 
independent propositions: — 

1st. To soften an assertion or statement; as. nemo istud tibi concedat, 
" no one would grant that to you ;" forsltan temere feceri ?n, " per- 
haps / may have acted rashly ;" quis dubitet? "who can doubt 
it?" 

2d. To express a wish or desire, like the Greek Optative; as, ed?nus t 
"let us go;" moridmur, "let ns die;" nunc revertdmur, "let us now 
return." In the second, and the third person, it is used to exbort or 
command; and, with a negative, to forbid; as, faciat, "let him 
do it; 91 ipse viderit, "let him see to it himself." Cio. Kerne 
attingas, "do not touch me." Ter. Em as quod uecesse est, 
(171-1). Sex. 



268 SYNTAX.- — MOODS. § 140 

3d. To express a doubtful question ; as, quo earn? " whither shall 1 

go ?" quid aliud faceret? " what else could he do /" (171-2). Cic. 

4th. After the imperfect, and pluperfect subjunctive, in a conditional 

clause with si, etsi, quasi, etiamsi, tamelsi, ni, nisi, the subjunctive 

is used independently in the apodosis, or conclusion, in the same 

tenses, when the thing supposed did not exist. Also, after the 

present, and perfect in the sense of the imperfect or pluperfect ; 

as, si hie sis, aliter sentias , "if you were here, you would think 

otherwise." Ter. Quos ni mea cur a r e sis tat, jam fiammce tule- 

rint. Yihg. In this construction, the conditional clause is some. 

times omitted ; as, rnagno mercentur Atridce (si possint). Virg. 

Note. — But, though in these and many similar expressions, the ^subjunc- 

tive appears to be used independently, it is easy to see, that in most cases, 

if not in all, it depends on an indicative or imperative understood, and 

which has been omitted for the sake of brevity (145). 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN DEPENDENT PROPOSITIONS. 

626. — The subjunctive mood is used, for the 
most part, in dependent clauses, and is preceded 
by another verb in the indicative, imperative, or 
infinitive mood, expressed or understood, with 
which it is connected by a conjunction, a rela- 
tive, or an indefinite term, and may- generally be 
rendered by the potential in English (142-2d, and 
143). 

Obs. — The construction of the subjunctive mood, in Latin 
agrees, generally, with its construction in English and in 
Greek. Its use, however, is much more extensive in Latin, 
being employed in many cases in which the indicative is used 
in these languages. Its construction in dependent propositions, 
is subject to the following Rules. 



§ 140. SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER CONJUNCTIONS, &c. 

627 — Rule LIV. The conjunctions, ut, quo, licet, 
ne, utinam, and durnmodo, <fcc, and words used 
indefinitely in dependent clauses, for the most 
part, require the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Lego ut disc am, I read that I may learn, 

Nescit qui sim, He knows not who I am. 



g 1-JtO SYNTAX, — MOODS. 269 

EXPLANATION.— The conjunctions requiring the subjunctive mood, are 
those which imply doubt, contingency, uncertainty, and the like, as follows : 

1. Ut, quo, " that.* : ne i quominns, "that not," referring to 
the result, end, or design, take the subjunctive; thus, 

1st Ut, " that," denoting a result, after such words as sic, ita, adeo, tarn, 
talis, tardus, is, ejusmodi, is followed by the subjunctive. 

2d. Ut, u that." and ne, " that not," denoting purpose or design ; or when 
M that" is equivalent to " in order that," " so that," take the sub- 
junctive. 

Sd. After verbs signifying to request, admonish, advise, commission, eih 
courage, command, and the like ; or to endeavor, aim at, or ac- 
complish ; as, facto, efficio, etc. ; and sometimes to permit, to wisJ\ 
to be necessary, <fcc, ut and ne usually take the subjunctive. 

4th. Ut, with the subjunctive, usually follows such impersonals as fit, 
fieri non potest, accidit, incidit, occurrit, contingit, evenit, usu venit, 
ration est, sequitur, futurum est, reliquum est, relinquMur, restat, 
superest, opus est, est signifying it happens, it occurs, it remains, &a 

2. Si " if;" ut si, quasi, ac si, eeque ac si. perinde ut si, altter 
ac si, velut si, tanquam, ceu, " as if," expressing a condition or 
supposition, commonly take the subjunctive. 

3. Ut, licet, etiam si, quamvis, "although;" quin for qui non % 
or ut non, or quominus, take the subjunctive. 

4. Antequam, priusquam, " before ;" dum, donee, quoad^ 
"until," modo, dum, dummbdo, "provided," and the particles 
of wishing, utinam, si, ut or uti, for utinam, commonly take 
the subjunctive. 

5. Interrogative words used indefinitely in dependent clauses 
or containing an indirect question, take the subjunctive. 

The words thus used are, the particles an, ne, num, utrum, anne, an- 
non ; — the adverbs ubi, quo, unde } quorsum, quamdiu, quoties, cur, quare, 
quamobrem, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, quam, quantopere ; — the adjec- 
tives quantus, qudlis, quot, quotas, uter ; quis, qui, cujas, <fcc. 

Note. — In double questions, direct or indirect, expressed in English by 
' whether — or," the first is commonly made by utrum, or the enclitic ne, 
and the second by an, or anne. The first particle, however, is often omit- 
ted, but must be supplied in translating; as, idfrustra an ob rem faciam, 
(" whether) I shall do this to no purpose or successfully." The English tt or 
not" is made, in the second part, by necne ; as, dii utrum sint nee n e sint 
qna=ritiir. Posset lege agi necne pauci quondam sciebant. It is used 
also in direct questions; as. sunt hcec tua verba necne? 

628. — Obs. 1. Many of these conjunctions* are used also with the in- 
dicative mood. In such cases, they are to be regarded merely as con- 
nectives, or used adverbially, denoting circumstances of time, manner, <tc 

<»29. — Obs. 2. Many other conjunctions are used, sometimes with the 
indicative, and sometimes with the subjunctive mood ; such as, quum. (or 



270 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 141 

cum), etsi, tametsi (tamenetsi), quanquam., si, sin, ne, nisi, siquidem, quod, 
quia, cfec. Quoniam, quando, and quandoquulem, usually have the indica- 
tive. 

630. — Obs. 3. Quum (or cum), when it signifies time, merely, takes the 
indicative, and is translated when; as, tempus fait qu um homines v a g a- 
b an t u r. When it denotes a connection of thought, implying dependence, 
it takes the subjunctive, and may be translated variously, according to the 
nature of the connection, since, although,, as soon as, seeing that, &c. ; as, 
c u m ea ita slut, " since these things are so.' ? 

631. — 0bs^4=. In narration, quum is joined with the imperfect, and 
lie pluperfect subjunctive, even when it relates to time, but the event de- 
noted by the subjunctive, usually relates to that expressed in the clause 
on which the subjunctive depends, not only in regard to time, but also, in 
some sense, as a cause; as, cum sciret Clodius iter necessarium Miloni 
esse Lanuvium, Roma subito ipse profectus est. 

632. — Obs. 5. The conjunction ut, is elegantly omitted after volo, nolo, 
rogo, precor, censeo, suadeo, licet, oportet, necesse est, and the like. Also, 
after the imperatives sine,fac, or facito; as, precor venias, ' ; I beg (that) 
you would come;" fac facias, " see (that) you do it." So also ne is omitted 
after the imperative cave ; as, cave facias, '* See thou do it not." 

633. — Obs. 6. After the verbs timeo, vereor, and the like, ut is used in 
a negative sense, " that not," and ne, in an affirmative sense, u that f as, timeo 
ut faciat, " I fear that he will not do it." Timeo ne faciat, " I fear that he 
will do it." In a few examples, however, ut seems to have an affirmative, 
and ne, a negative meaning. Ne non, after timeo, vereor, is equivalent to 
ut non after other verbs ; as, timeo ne non impetrem, " I fear that I 
shall not obtain it." 

634. — 6. In oblique discourse (651 Exp.), the verb, in de- 
pendent clauses, takes the subjunctive after any conjunctive 
term. 



§ 141. THE SUBJUNCTIVE AFTER THE RELATIVE, 

635. — Rule LV. The relative qui, quce, quod, 
requires the subjunctive, when it refers to an in- 
dejmite, negative, or interrogative word, — to words 
implying comparison, — or assigns the reason, cause, 
or end of that which precedes, — and also in all 
cases of oblique narration. 

This General Rule may be subdivided Tito the following 

SPECIAL RULES. 
636. — Rule I. When the relative qui, quce, quod refcrs t<r 



§ 141 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 271 

an indefinite, negative, or interrogative word, it requires the 
subjunctive mood ; as, 

Sunt (h o m S n e s) q u i dicant, , Some people say. 

N l m o est q u i haud intelligat, There is no one who does not understand. 

Quis est qui utilia fugiat $ IV ho is there that shuns what is useful? 

637. — EXPLANATION.— This rule takes effect only when the antece- 
dent is something indefinite, and when the relative clause is the predicate of 
the sentence, i. e. when it expresses what is affirmed or denied respecting 
the subject of the verb, and has for its antecedent, the indefinite, negative, 
or interrogative itself, and not any intervening word. These are indispen- 
sable conditions of this rule. 

638. — Gbs. 1. The indefinites referred to in this rule are the indefinite 
pronouns (127-1, and 128, except quldain), and the periphrastic expres- 
sions, eat qui, " some one," sunt qui, fuerunt qui, "some ;" to which may 
be added the verbs reperio, irivenio, Itabeo, adsum, dcsum, venio, and some 
others, used in a similar manner, by which indefinite expressions are formed 
nearly of the same import with est qui, sunt qui, <fcc. ; as, omnia cetas quod 
a gat inveniet. 

639. — The negative antecedents most common under this rule are 
such as nemo est, nullus est, unus non est, alius non est, or extat, nihil est, 
nee est x or non quisquam est, vix ullus est, nee ullus est, vix decimus quisque 
est, (or any other ordinal used in a similar manner,) non multi sunt, non 
multum est; also, non est, or nihil est, meaning "there is no cause, or 
reason why;" and also after non or nihil ' Itabeo. After these last, quod 
" which," must follow, governed by propter understood ; as, non est quod 
scrlbas ; " there is no reason why you should write." 

040. — The interrogative expressions in the antecedent clause under 
this rule are chiefly these : Quis est? quantus est? titer est? ecquis est? 
numquis est? an quisquam est ? an est aliquis? quotusquisque est? quo- 
ins est ? quot sunt? quam multi sunt ? And also, quid est? numquid est? 
u what cause ?" as, num quid est quod iimeas ? " why should you fear ?" 

Note — Interrogatives under this rule are of a general character, and 
usually imply a negation ; as, quis est qui faciat ? " who is there that does 
it ?" i. e. " nobody does it." 

641. — Rule II. The relative is followed by the subjunctive. 
when the relative and antecedent clauses involve a comparison, 
or when the latter expresses the purpose, object, or design, of 
something expressed by the former ; as, 

Digitus qui ametur, "worthy to be loved." Quis tarn esset aniens qui 
semper viveret ? " who would be so foolish as to live always ?" 

642. — EXPLANATION.— In all cases under this rule, the relative is 
equivalent to v.t, with the personal pronoun representing the antecedent ; i. e. 
it is used for ut ego, ut tu, ut ille, ut nos, ut vos, ut illi. In such cases, ut 
with the personal pronoun, is frequently used instead of the relative. Here, 
also, the relative clause must belong, not to the subject, but to the predicate 
of the sentence, for in such cases only can it be resolved into ut ego y &c. 



272 • SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 1 41 

643. — Obs. 2. The relative is used in this sense, and requires 
the subjunctive. 

1st When it comes after dignus, indignus, idoneus, and the like in the 
predicate ; as, patres, si dignu m q u i (ut Me) secundus ab Romulo 
numeretur, crearitis, auctores fient. 

2d. 'When it follows tarn, tantus, adeo ; as, quis est tarn. Lynceus, qui in 
tantis tenebris nihil off en da t ? i. e. ut in ta?itis, <fec., "who is so 
quick-sighted that he would not stumble in such darkness T — In 
like manner when it follows talis, ejusmbdi, hujusmodi, the sub- 
junctive is commonly used; as, est innocentia affectio talis ani~ 
mi qui no c eat nemini. Also, after is, Me, and hie, in the sense 
of talis (1 23-2, b.) ; as, non tu is es qui ne scias, " you are 
not such a one as not to knoio!' Sometimes, in such cases, ut takes 
the place of qui; as, neque enim is es, Catilma, ut te pudor 
revocarit, &g. 

3d. "When it follows a comparative with quam; as, major sum quam 
cui p os sit for tuna nocere. 

4th. When the relative clause expresses the purpose, object, or design, for 
which the person mentioned in the antecedent clause is appointed* 
or the thing spoken of is possessed, or done ; as, Lacedcemonii le- 
gdtos Athenas miserunt qui (i. e. ut Mi) eum absentem a ecu 
sdrent. In such sentences the relative and subjunctive may be 
properly rendered, to, in order to ; thus, "the Lacedemonians sent 
ambassadors to Athens, to accuse (or in order to accuse) him in his 
absence." Sometimes here also, ut takes the place of the relative ; 
as, missus sum ut (i. e. qui) te adduc ere m. 

644. — Obs. 3. When qui combines with its signification as a relative, 
or when the preceding clause implies, a force equal to so that, such that, 
the man to, such a man as, it requires the subjunctive ; as, stultum est 
timere quod vitare non possis , "it is foolish to fear that which (i. e. 
such a thing as) you cannot avoid." In all such cases, the antecedent clause 
conveys a vague and general idea, i. e. the person or things referred to are 
regarded as a species or class, rather than as individuals. 

645. — Rule III. When the relative with its clause assigns 
the cause or reason of the action or event announced by the 
antecedent clause, it requires the subjunctive ; as, 

Peccavisse mihi videor qui a te decesserim, " I think that I have erred 
in having (or, because I) left you." 

646. — EXPLANATION.— In all constructions of this kind, the relative 
is equivalent to quum, quod, quia, or quoniam ego^ tu, is, nos, &c, signifying 
" because," or " seeing that I," " thou," &c. 

647. — Obs. 4. The relative has this force in the expressions quippe 
qui, ut qui, utpote qui, and consequently is followed by the subjunctive ; 
as, libros non contemno, equidem, quippe qui nunquam le gerim,"\ 
do not, indeed, despise the books, for (or because) I have never read them. ,, 

648. — Rule IV. When qui possesses a power equal to qitan- 
quam,or etsi is, or to si, modo, or dummodo, " although — if— 



§ 141 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 278 

provided that lie, she, it," &c, it requires the subjunctive 
mood : a*, 



Tu dquam pumice postulas, qui ipse sitiat, "you demand -water from 
a pumice stone, though itself is parched with thirst!' Laco, consilii quam* 
vis egregii quod non ipse affe rret inimlcus, " Laco was the enemy of 
any measure, however excellent, if (i. e. provided that) he himself did not 
propose it," 

649. — Rule V. The relative qui takes the subjunctive after 
units and solus ; when they restrict the affirmation to a particu- 
lar subject ; as, 

Ho2C est una contentio quce adhuc permanse'rit, " this is the only dis- 
pute icli ich has remained till this time." 

650. — Rule VI. In oblique or indirect discourse, the relative 
requires the subjunctive mood ; as, 

Socrates dicere solebat, o?nnes in eo quod sclrent satis esse eloquentes, 
" Socrates was accustomed to say, that all were eloquent enough in that 
which they knew." 

651. — EXPLANATION.— Discourse is said to be direct, when a writer 
or speaker delivers his own sentiments, — oblique, when a person relates in 
his own language, what another speaker or writer said ; an example will best 
illustrate this distinction. — Tacitus introduces Galgacus, addressing the Cale- 
donian army as follows : "When I contemplate the causes of the war, and 
the necessity to which we are reduced, great is my confidence that this day, 
and this union of yours, will prove the beginning of universal liberty to 
Britain." This is the direct discourse. If, instead of introducing Galgacus 
himself, to speak his own speech, the historian had only told us what he said, 
he would have used the oblique or indirect style, thus : Galgacus said, " that 
when he contemplated the causes of the war, and the necessity to which they 
(the Eoman army) were reduced, his confidence wa3 great, that that day, 
and that union of theirs, would prove the beginning of universal liberty to 
Britain." 

In the first of these, or the direct discourse, it will be observed that when 
the speaker refers to himself, he uses the first person, " I," "we." When 
he refers to those addressed, he uses the second person, "thou," "you," — 
and that the leading verbs in Latin are all in the indicative mood, and inde- 
pendent of any previous word. But in the second or oblique discourse, the 
third person only is used, whether the speaker is said to refer to himself, or 
his hearers, or a third person. And the leading verbs in Latin, are in tne 
infinitive mood, or in the subjunctive with ut, and, in either case, dependent 
on the verb with which the account is introduced such as, "he said," 
" stated," "replied," or the like. It is evident, therefore, that while in both 
forms, the same idea is expressed in nearly the same language, the construc- 
tion of the sentence in each is entirely different; thus, in direct discourse: 
Antonius inquit, " Ars earum rerum est quce sciuntur ." Cic. Quinctilian re- 
ntes the same thing in the oblique form ; thus, " Antonius ait, artem edrum 

12* 



274 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § l4l 

rerum esse qua sciantur." Here, the leading verb in the direct form, is est, 
in the indicative mood, having no dependence on any previous word, and 
having its subject in the nominative case. In the oblique form, the- sama 
verb is in the infinitive, esse ; it is dependent on ait, and has its subject in 
the accusative. In the first, the verb in the subordinate clause, is in the 
indicative, sciuntur ; in the last, it is in the subjunctive mood, sciantur. 
Hence, the following general principle. 

652. — In every unmixed example of oblique narration, two 
moods only are admissible, the infinitive and subjunctive, and 
consequently, as the relative is never employed but in the 
secondary, and subordinate members of a sentence, it must 
always, in oblique statements, be followed by the subjunctive. 

653. — Obs. 5. In connection with this general principle, however, two 
things must be noticed : 

1st. In oblique discourse, the narrator frequently introduces a remark of 
his own, for the purpose of explanation, but yet so closely interwoven 
with the discourse he is reporting, as to seem to be a part of it. Such 
remark is usually introduced with the relative, and the indicative, and 
may be detected by this construction : Thus, Disseruit Casar, non quadem 
sibi igndra quce de Sil cino vulg aba?itur, sed non ex rumore statuen- 
dum, " Caesar replied ' that those things, indeed,' viz. : which were rumored 
concerning Suanu.% ' were not unknown to him,' " &c. Tac. Here, the clause, 
quce de Sildno vulgabautur, is not to be regarded as a part of wdiat Caesar 
said, but as a clause thrown in by the historian to inform his readers whao 
things they were which Caesar meant. But if the verb had been vulgd- 
reniur, it would have shown that it was a part of what Caesar said. 

2d. In animated oblique narration, the historian sometimes suddenly 
passes from the oblique to the direct discourse, and, instead of reporting 
the remarks of the speaker, introduces him, as it were, to speak for him- 
self. This is always manifest by the transition, from the use of the infini- 
tive and subjunctive, to that of the indicative, and from the use of the 
third person to denote the speaker, and the person addressed, to that of 
the first and second. The following is often quoted as an appropriate 
example of this. (Oblique) " Sabince mulieres dirimere ivfestas acies, 
hinc patres, kinc viros orantex^ ne se sangmne nefcmdo, soceri, generique 
respergerent ; ne parriddjo maculdrent partus suos, nepdtum illi, liberum 
h> progemem. (Direct) Si pnget affinitdtis inter vox, si connubii piget, in 
?wx vertite Iras, nos causa belti, non vulnerum ac ccedhim viris ac parentlbus 
sumus, melius periblmus, quam sine alteris vestrum viduce aut orbm vivemus, 
Liv I. 13. 

654. — Obs. 6. A verb in the Future-perfect indicative, in direct dis 
course, will always take the pluperfect subjunctive, when the same sen- 
tence is thrown into the oblique form, whatever be the tense of the intro- 
ductory verb; thus, Dabitur quodcuv,oue optdris. Ov.; in direct discourse, 
is thus related by Cicero, in the oblique form : Sol Phosthonti jilio fac- 
turum esse dixit quidquid op> t a sset. 

655. — Obs. h i. To this construction may be referred the subjunctive 
connected by a relative or casual conjunction with the preceding verb in 



§142-3 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 275 

.its pacts, for the purpose of expressing, not what the writer asserti 

If, but what is alleged by others ; as, Socrates accusatus est quod cor- 

rumperet juveututem, "Socrates was accused, because (as^vas alleged) lie 

corrupted the youth." The indicative here would asseit, on the part of 

the writer, that Socrates did corrupt the youth. 

Note. — The verbs puto, dico, arbitror. and the like, are sometimes used, 
especially by Cicero, in the subjunctive, with the verb following in the 
infinitive, when properly they should be in the indicative, (meaning, ''as 
they said, thought, etc.") and the verb, in the clauses dependent on them, 
in the* subjunctive ; as, Rediit paulo post, quod se oblltum nescio quid 
diceret, Cic., " He (Hannibal) returned soon after, because, as he said, he 
had forgotten something ;"' for quod, ut dicebat, oblitus esset nescio quid. 
Ementiundo qucv se . . . audisse dicereut, Sall., "By forging stories which, 
us they said, they haul heard ;" for quae, ut dicebant, audivisseut. 

656. — Obs. 8. When an infinitive or subjunctive mood has 
a clause connected with it by a relative or other connecting 
word, for the purpose of restricting the predicate, otherwise 
indefinite, the verb of the latter clause is put in the subjunc- 
tive mood ; as, 

Quid enim potest esse tarn perspicuum, quam esse alxquod nximen quo 
hcec r eg antur, " For what can be so clear, as that there is some divinity 
by whom these things are governed ?" 



657— § 142. CONSTRUCTION OF THE IMPERATIVE. 

1. The Imperative mood is used to command, exhort, <kc, 149. Its sub- 
ject, with which it agrees by Rule IV., is the person or persons addressed 
in the command, &c, and hence, it is properly used only in the second per- 
son. In Latin, as well as in Greek, the imperative mood has a distinct 
form for the third person ; it is, however, but seldom used, and chiefly in 
the enacting of laws, having the force of a command on those for whom 
they are designed. 

2. With the imperative, not is expressed by ne, and nor by neve ; as, 
Ne crede colori. Yieg. Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito, 
neve urito. Cic. 

3. Instead of the simple imperative, sometimes fac or cave, with the 
subjunctive, are used, and noli with the infinitive ; as, /at* vsnias, " come ;" 
cave existrmes, " do not think;" Noli timere, "do not fear." For other 
tenses, used imperatively, see 150. 



§ 143. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 

[For the tenses of the infinitive mood, in connection with different tenses 
of the verb, see § 47.] 

658. — The infinitive mood, in Latin, is used in two ways ; First, as a 
verbal noun, and Second, as a verb. As a verbal noun, it has no subject • 
us a verb, it always has. Without a sul^ect, it cannot form a proposition, 



276 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 144 

or express an affirmation ; with a subject, it always does. In the first 
ease, it comes under the regimen of the verb, either alone as a verbal 
noun, or with tfte words dependiDg upon it, as a substantive phrase. In 
the second, it comes under its regimen, only in connection with its subject, 
as a distinct, though dependent proposition, or substantive clause. Hence, 
all that belongs to the construction of this mood, may be comprised in 
what relates to the use of it, in these two ways. 



§ 144. I. THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A SUBJECT. 

659. — The infinitive without a subject, may be regarded as a 
verbal noun in the singular number, neuter gender (271), and 
in form indeclinable, but differing from all other nouns, inas- 
much as it involves the idea of time, and has all the power of 
governing that belongs to the verb. The character of the in- 
finitive as a noun, is manifest from its being used in almost 
every way that a noun is. It is used, 

1. As the nominative to a verb; as, invider e (invidia) non cadit in 
sapientem. Didicisse fi.deliter arte s emollit trior es. Ov. Utinam emori 
fortunis meis honestus ex it us esset; or as the nominative after the 
verb ; as, slve illud er at sine fun ere f e rri ; bene vivere est bis vivere. 

2. As a case in apposition to a preceding nominative ; as, res erat spec 
taculo digna, v id ere Xerxem, <kc. ; " it was a thing worthy of being seen, 
to see Xerxes," <fcc. 

3. It is used as a genitive after substances and adjectives ; as, tern pus 
est ablre, for abeundi ; — soli cantdreperlti Arcades, equivalent to 
cantandi or cantus. Rules VII. IX. 

4. As a dative after adjectives, &q. ; thus, et vos servlre magis quam 
imp er are p arati estis. Rule XV I. 

5. As an accusative after an active verb ; as, da mihi fa Her e, Hon. ; 
terrain cu?n prlmum arant, pr o scindZr e appellant ; cum iterum, 
offr i n gore di cunt . Varr. — After a preposition ; as, nihil interest 
inter dare et accipere. Sen. JP ratter pi or are. Hor. Pr alter 
loqu i . Liv. 

6. As a vocative ; as, Ovivere nostrum, for vita nostra. 

7. As an ablative in various constructions; as, dignus am ari; as the 
case absolute; thus, Audi to regeni in Siciliam tend ere. This example, 
however, has a subject rege?n, Rule XXIII. 

8. It has an adjective or pronoun agreeing with it; as, scire tuum 
nihil est; ipsum die ere nunquam non ineptum est, <fcc. Cic, In this 
way, we may account for the poetic " dulce loqui" "rid&re decorum" <fcc. 

9. It governs the genitive like a noun ; as, c uj u s non di m icare fuii 
vine e r e . 

Note. — It is however, chiefly as the subject or the object of a verb, in 
the nominative or accusative, that it is used as a noun. The examples 



§ 144 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 277 

ab:>ve (3, 4, 7,) in which it is used, where a noun or pronoun would be put 
m the genitive, or dative, or ablative, are of rare occurrence, and in some 
cases may be otherwise explained. The infinitive as a noun, in the nomi- 
native or accusative, is subject to the following Rules: 

660. — .Rule LVL One verb being the subject 
of another, is put in the infinitive ; as, 

Facile est queri, To complain is easy. 

Me ntlri turpe est, To lie is base. 

661. — EXPLANATION.— In the first example the subject or thing 
spoken of is expressed by the infinitive queri, which is therefore the nomi- 
native to the verb est. A noun used instead of queri would have to be in the 
nominative case. In such sentences, it is manifestly improper to say that est 
governs queri, just as it would be improper to say the verb governs its nomi- 
native. This rule applies also to the infinitive with a subject. 

662. — Obs. 1. A proper attention to this rule will show that many 
verbs considered impersonal, or thought to be used impersonally, are not 
really so, but have an infinitive or a clause of a sentence for their subject 
or nominative; thus, nee profuit Hydra crescere per damnum, "nor did it 
profit the Hydra to grow by his wounds." Ovid. Here, instead of saying 
that profuit is used impersonally, and governs crescere in the infinitive ; 
the true construction is, that profuit is used personally, and has crescere 
for its nominative. So, the following, cadit in eundem misereri et invidere. 
Cic. Vacare culpa magnum est solatium; neque est te fall ere quidquam, 
(fee, 307. 

663. — Rule LVII. One verb governs another, 
as its object, in the infinitive ; as, 

Cupio disc ere, I desire to learn. 

664. — EXPLANATION.— The infinitive mood under this rule is equiva- 
lent to a noun in the case which the preceding verb usually governs : Thus, 
in the example, cupio is a transitive active verb and governs discere, as if it 
were a noun in the accusative. The meaning is, that a verb, used as the ob- 
ject of another, without a conjunction or connective word, must be put in 
the infinitive. This Eule also applies to the infinitive with a subject. 

Note. — In all cases of the infinitive without a subject, under this rule, 
the infinitive expresses an act, or state, of the subject of the preceding 
verb. 

665. — -Obs. 2. The infinitive without a subject, is used only after cer- 
tain verbs, especially such as denote desire, ability, intention or endeavor ; 
Buch as, cupio, opto,volo, nolo, mcllo ; — possum,' queo, nequeo, valeo, coaiio, 
co n or, tendo, disco, doceo, debeo, <fcc. By the poets it is used after fuge, 
pn iree for noli, and sometimes after caveo, fugio, gaudeo, <tc. In a few in 
stances it is used after verbs of motion, to denote a purpose ; as, introi'U 
v id ere, " he came to see" Ter. Iniit consUia toller e reges, " he de- 
vised a plan to destroy the kings." 



278 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 145 

666. — Obs. 8. In many cases, tie infinitive after such verbs maybe 
changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, cupio m e es.se c I erne u t c m. 
Cic. ; for esse clemens, or clementem. 326. Or, for the subjunctive with ut, 
or ne ; as, sententiam ne die ere t recusavit, for sententiam dicere. 

$Q i . — Obs. 4. The infinitive without a subject is also used after adjec- 
tives, and nouns. So used, it is equivalent to a noun ia the case governed 
by such adjective or noun! See examples, 659-3, 4, 7. 

60S. — Obs. 5. Sometimes the infinitive is understood; as, ei provin 
nam Numidiam populiis jussit ; sc. dari. 

Note 1. — When the verbs possum, volo, nolo, mcllo, in the indicative or 
subjunctive, are translated by the English auxiliaries can, will, will not, 
will rather ; or in the past tense by could, would, tfce., the infinitive follow- 
ing is translated without to before it; as, potest fieri, "it- can be done;' 5 
vdlo Ire, " I w^ill go ;" mdlo facer e, " I would rather do it ;" nollte timer -e t 
" do not fear." 

Note 2. — The present infinitive is generally translated as the perfect, 
without to, when it comes after the imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect, of 
possum, volo, nolo, mdlo, translated could, would, would not, would rather ; 
and with to after the same tenses of debeo and oportet, translated ought ; 
as, melius fieri von potuit, " it could not have been done better;" volui 
dicere, " I would have said ;" sumere arma noluit, " he would not have 
taken arms ;" dividi oportuit, " it ought to have been divided." <fcc. 

Note 3. — -After verbs denoting to see, hear, feel, and the like, the present 
infinitive is sometimes rendered by the English present participle ; as, 
audlvi eum dicere, " I heard him saying." Also when the infinitive is the 
subject of another verb; as, mordri periculosum est, " delaying (to delay) is 
dangerous." 

The Historical Infinitive. 

669. — Obs. 6. The verb governing the infinitive is sometimes omitted , 
especially is this the case in historical narration, when the infinitive fol- 
lows a nominative case in the sense of the imperfect indicative, or the 
perfect indefinite; as, invidere o nines mihi, " all envied me." Ter. 
At Romani, dbmi militiceque intenti, f est in are, par are, alius 
alium hortdri. Sall. When thus used^ it is supposed to be governed . 
by ccepit or cceperunt understood. Cases occur, however, in which this 
supplement cannot be made; as, verum ingenium ejus hand absurdum ; 
posse facer e versus, jocum mover e, etc., (310.) Sall. The historical infini- 
tive and the imperfect, are often connected in the same construction ; as, 
Alblnus .... sendtum de fozdere consulebat; et tamen interim exercitui 
supplementum scribere . . . . auxilia ar cesser e , denique modis omni- 
buc festinare . Sall., Jug. 39. 



670.— § 145. II. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

The infinitive with a subject possesses the character of the verb, and 
affirms of its subject as in the indicative or the subjunctive mood ; but 



§ 145 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 279 

only in suboi ad dependent propositions. These propositioLs them- 

selves have a substantive character, and generally stand in the relation of 

substantives to a v%i b, or phrase, on which they depend; sometimes as a 
nominative to, or the subject of the verb, but generally as an object or an 
accusative after it. Thus used, they may be called substantive clauses — 
and as such, they fall under the two preceding rules. Thus : 

1st. The infinitive with a subject must be considered as the nominative 
when it is the subject of a sentence, i. e. when anything is declared of it; 
as, te non istud audlvisse mirum est, " that you have not heard that 
is wonderful." Here, te non istud audlvisse stands as the nominative to 
est. Rule LVI. See 661. 

2d. The infinitive with its subject is the accusative or object after a 
verb, when it has for its direct object, the idea expressed by a dependent 
infinitive clause, or when such clause takes the place of a noun or pronoun 
governed by the verb; as, mlror te non s crib ere, "I wonder thai 
you do not write!' Here, te non scribere stands as the object of mlror, 
which governs it as an accusative by Rule LVII, or XX. See 664. 

Note, — The verbs which admit an infinitive with its subject as their 
direct object, are those which denote an action of our senses, or internal 
faculties, or such as denote feel? ng, knowing, thinking, or saying ; as. audio, 
video, sentio, cognosco, intelllgo, memini, puto, duco, dlco, prodo serlbo, pro- 
miito, and the like. These seldom take a conjunction (ut or quod)^xit\i the 
indicative or subjunctive as their object. See Obs. 5, et seq. 

671. — Rule LVIII. The subject of the infini- 
tive is put. in the accusative; as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

672. — EXPLANATION.— The subject of the infinitive is the person or 
thing spoken of in the dependent clause, and may be, as in Rule IV., a noun, 
a pronoun, &c, and is always to be in the accusative case ; except as in 669. 

Under this Rule, the infinitive with its subject forms a distinct propo- 
sition, and is equivalent to the indicative, or subjunctive mood in English, 
together with the connective "that." Thus, in the example, te valere con- 
tains the simple proposition, "You are well." The equivalent of the Eng- 
lish " that," connecting: it as a subordinate clause with the preceding verb, 
is implied in the infinitive form. If the infinitive stand after an accusa- 
tive which does not form with it a distinct proposition, i. e. which is not its 
subject, it does not belong to this Rule, but the accusative is governed by 
Rule XX. ; as, Proteus p ecus egit altos visere monies. Hoe. Hence. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

673. — Obs. 1. The English particle "that," may be called the sign of 
the accusative before the infinitive, being used to connect the infinitive 
clause with the preceding. It may often be omitted, however, in transla- 
ting, as it frequently is in English ; thus, aiunt regent, adventure, " they say 
the king is coming, c r, " that the king is coming." 



280 SYNTAX. — MOODS. § 145 

674. — Obs. 2. The accusative subject, iu Latin, is translated by the 
nominative in English. Hence, the accusative of the relative pronoun, 
referring to persons must be rendered who, not whom ;*as, quern confec- 
tum vulneribus diximus, " who, we said, was exhausted with his wounds." 

Note. — The infinitive with its subject in the accusative is sometimes 
translated in the same form in English ; as, cupio te venire,"! wish 
you to come ;" quos discordare noverat, "whom he had known to dif- 
fer ;" eum vocari jussit, "he ordered him to be called." 

N. B. — For the various ways of rendering the different 
tenses of the infinitive after different tenses of the indicative 
or subjunctive, see at length, ISO. 

075. — Obs. 3. When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the 
subject of the preceding verb, it is seldom expressed, unless required to 
be emphatic; as, pollicitus sum scripturum (esse) sc. me, "I promised that 
I would write." After verbs signifying to be accustomed, to dare, I can, I 
ought, the infinitives esse, judicctri, videri, <kc, having the same subject with 
the preceding verb, have an adjective or noun after them in the nomina- 
tive case, indicating that the subject of the infinitive understood is re- 
garded as a nominative according to the Greek construction. Gr. Gr. § 175. 
JExc. Thus, solet tristis videri; aude sapiens esse; debes esse dilig ens. See 
also, 325-328, and 733-3, 3d. 

676. — Obs. 4. When the preceding verb is in the passive voice, the 
subject of the infinitive may be changed into the subject of that verb, or 
remain unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being used imper- 
sonally, or rather having the infinitive clause for its subject ; thus, m a- 
tr em Pausanice eo tempore vixisse dicitur, or, mater Pausanice eo tem- 
pore vixisse dicitur, " it is said that the mother of Pausanias was living at 
that time," or, " the mother of Pausanias is said to have been living," &c. 
Gr. Gr., § 175, Obs. 3. 

Note. — When a relative clause has the same verb as the proposition 
with the infinitive on which the relative clause depends, but without the 
repetition of the verb, the subject of the verb in the relative clause is put 
by attraction in the accusative ; as, Platonem ferunt idem sensisse quod 
Pythago r am, " They say that Plato thought as Pythagoras did." But, 
if the verb of the relative clause is expressed, its subject must be in the 
nominative ; as, Platonem ferunt .... idem sensisse <quod Pythagoras 
sens it. 

The same analogy is observed with the conjunction quam after a com 
parative. See 470, 1st and 2d. 

677. — Obs. 5. The accusative with the infinitive, in a subordinate 
clause, is in some cases equivalent to the subjunctive with ut or quoa, 
" that," preceding ; as, Optavit ut in cur rum pat? is toller etur, or, 
Optavit se in cur rum pair is to Hi, ''He (Phaethon) desired that he 
should be taken up into his father 's chariot" Gaudeo t e v a I e r e, or gau- 
deo quod vale as, "I am glad thai you are well" But though, in a few 
cases, the one expression may be changed for the other, usage has given 
so decided a preference in some cases to the one form, and in others to the 
other, that such change would be improper ; thus, 



§ 145 SYNTAX. — MOODS. 281 

1st. When the dependent clause expresses purpose or design, or when 
" that" is equivalent to " in order that" " so that" ut with the subjunctive is 
used. 627-1. 2d. 

2d. After verbs of endeavoring, aiming, accomplishing, such as facto, 
officio, perjicio, (fee, the subjunctive with ut is always used. Hence arises 
the use of facere ut, instead of the indicative, to denote a fact ; thus, fecit 
ut di m itteret miUtes, is equivalent to dimlsit milites. 

3d. Verbs signifying to request, demand, admonish, advise, commission^ 
encourage, command, and the like, usually take the subjunctive with ut v 
which may generally be rendered as the infinitive ; as, prwcepit ut irem^ 
" He commanded me to go." 

Note. — In narrative, dependent clauses, expressing obliquely the wish, 
command, or message of another, whether the verb be in the subjunctive 
with ut or ne. or in the infinitive with a subject, or both in connection, 
often depend o^ j, word denoting to say, saying, understood, or implied in 
the leading verb; as, Ad Bocchum nuntios mittit [qui dice rent ut) 
quamprlmum copias adduceret ; prcelii faciundi tempus adesse. Sall. Jug., 
97. Verba fctcit (die ens) se arma cepisse. Id. 102. 

4th. Ut with the subjunctive follows verbs signifying to happen, to occur, 
Ac, as, ft, incidit, occurrit, contingit ; est, restat, superest, (fee 62*7-1. 4th. 

5th. Verbs signifying willingness, unwillingness, permission, necessity, 
&c, commonly take the accusative with the infinitive. Also, generally, 
verbs denoting seeing, hearing, knowing, feeling, thinking, saying, (fee, but 
sometimes they take the subjunctive. 

6th. When the dependent clause expresses, not a thought or conception 
only, but a fact, the verb is put in the indicative or subjunctive with quod ; 
as, Inter causas malorum nostrbrum est quod vivimus ad exempla. 

7th. After verbs denoting a feeling of pain or pleasure, and the out- 
ward expression of those feelings, such as. gaudeo, detector, angor, doleo, 
and the like, quod, " that," in the sense of u because," with the indicative or 
subjunctive is used, or the accusative with the infinitive ; as, Quod 
spiralis (or vos spir dr e) indignaniur. Whether the indicative or sub- 
junctive is to be used, depends on whether the proposition expresses a 
fact, or only a conception of the mind. 

678. — Obs. 6. After such verbs as existimo, puto, spero, affirmo, sus- 
plcor, (fee, the place of the future infinitive is elegantly supplied by fore, 
or futurum esse, followed by ut with the subjunctive ; as, Nunquam pu- 
iavi fore ut supplex ad te venirem ; for (ine) venturum esse. 

This construction is necessary when the verb has no supine, and conse- 
quently no future infinitive active. See 179-9. Fore is sometimes used 
with the perfect participle, to denote a future action in the passive voice ; 
as, Quod videret nomine pads helium involutum fo r e. 

679. — Obs. 7. The verb on which the infinitive depends is sometimes 
v)mitted, especially in interrogations, or exclamations, expressive of indig- 
nation ; as, Mine incepto desist ere nee posse, (fee. Vieg. In such 
cases, some such expression as credibile est is understood. 

680. — Exc. The historical infinitive has its subject in the nominative 
(.310 and 669); as, Fama praiclara esse, "His fame urns illustrious." Sall. 



282 SYNTAX. — PAKTICIPLES. 8 146 



§ 146. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLES. 

[For the tenses, and the use of the participles in certain connections, 

see § 49.] 

681. — Rule LIX. Participles, like adjectives t 
agree with tlieir substantives in gender, number, 

and case ; as, 

Homo carens fraude, A man wanting guile. 

Pax tantum amata, Peace so greatly loved. 

(382. — Kem. Participles together with gerunds and supines being parts 
of the verb, govern the case of their own verbs ; so that no separate rule foi 
the government of cases by these, is at all necessary. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

683. — Obs. 1. The verbs do, reddo, volo, euro, facio, habeo, comperio, 
with the perfect participle, form a periphrasis similar to the compound 
tenses in English, and other modern languages ; thus, Habeo compertum. 
for comperi, " I have foimd ;" Missam Iram faciei, for tram mittet, &o. 

684. — Obs. 2. The perfect passive participle is often used, to supply 
the place of a verbal noun, when such a noun is wanting, or but seldom 
used; as, Haz li term r ecitdtce magnum luctum fecerunt, "The read- 
ing of this letter, (not "this letter being read") caused great mourning." 
So, Captum Tarentum, " The*taking of Tarentum ;" recepfus Hannibal, "the 
reception of Hannibal." Ab urbe condlta, " from the building of the city." 

G85. — Obs. 3. The future active participle is frequently used, to de- 
note the purpose or design of an action, and is in such case rendered to, in 
order to ; as, ad Jovem Hammonem pergit consuliurus de orienne sua, 
" he goes to Jupiter Amnion to (or in order to) consult him about his 
origin." So also the present ; as, p e tens veniam venit. 

6S6. — Obs. 4. The future -participle in dus, also, denotes a purpose, 
when joined with verbs signifying to give, to deliver. Jo agree for, to have,, 
to receive, to -undertake, <fcc. ; as, Testamentum tibi tr-adit legendum"he 
delivers his will to you to be read;" So, his aera dedit hab endum. 

687. — Obs. 5. The participle in dus, generally implies the idea of pro- 
priety, necessity, or obligation. This is almost always the case when it 
agrees with the subject of a sentence; as, Del end a est Carthago,' Guv- 
thage must be destroyed''. Sometimes, also, when it agrees with words not 
in the sub : ect ; as, Facta narrabas dissimulanda tibi, "You were 
relating (things which) ought to have been concealed by you." The doer 
in such constructions, when expressed, must be in the 'dative. 531. 

Note. — In some cases, the participle in das, is used as a present parti- 
ciple passive. 182, Note 3. 

688. — Obs. 6. Participles are often used instead of a dependent clause 

:press some condition or explanatory circumstance usually introduced 

in English, by a relative pronoun, or the particles as, when, although, sine* 



§ 146 SYNTAX. — THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 2S3 

while, and the like ; as, Ccesar hostes in f again c onj ectos persecutus est, 
" Caesar pursued the enemy who had been put to flight." Curio ad focum 
sedeuti, h To Curius as he wan sitting by the fire" Dionysius, Syr \ 
expul s u s, Corinthi pueros docebat, " Dionysius, when he was expected from 
Syracuse/' etc. 

689. — Obs. 7 A participle is joined with another verb, and in the 
same case with its subject, for the two following purposes, viz.: 

1st. It is used simply to connect an accompanying with the main action, 
whether simultaneous or antecedent in the same subject. Thus used, the par- 
ticiple and verb may be rendered as two verbs connected by a conjunction; 
as, venit ad me clamitan s, " he came to me and cried out^lit., crying out, 
Ccesar hostes ag gr e ssus ficg.avit, "Caesar attacked and defeated the 
enemy/' 

2d. Sometimes, as in Greek, it is used to connect an accompanying with 
the main action, in the same subject, as the cause, manner, or meavs of 
effecting it; as, hoc faciens vlvam melius, " by doing this I will live 
better." Hor. So used, it is equivalent to the ablative Gerund. 

When a participle does not refer to some leading subject in the propo- 
sition, but to a new subject introduced, and not depending on any word in 
the sentence, the participle is put with that new subject, in what is called — 

THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

690. — Rule LX. A substantive with, a partici- 
ple, whose case depends on no other word, is put 
in the ablative absolute ; as, 

e - 7 • /• • j ^ z \ The sun rising, or while the sun 

hole or lent e fuqiunt tenebrce, A . -, -, ff l. 

J ff ' ( rises, darkness rues away. 

691. — EXPLANATION.— This Kule properly affects the substantive 
only, with which the participle then agrees by Kule LIX. 

692. — Obs. 8. This construction is much more frequent in Latin, than 
in other languages, partly, because there is no perfect participle in the 
active voice. When, therefore, in connection with an active or deponent 
verb, a past act of its subject is to be expressed by the participle, the per 
feet participle passive must be used ; and hence, the object of the act must 
De introduced as a new subject, which, having no dependence on any word 
in the sentence, must, under the rule, be put in the ablative absolute. 
in English we say : Csesar, having sent forward the cavalry, followed with 

forces. There being no perfect participle in Latin corresponding to ' 
"having sent," which would agree with Ccesar, in the nominative case, this 
clause must be changed into the passive form ; thus, Ccesar, e quit at u 
p r cem i s so, subsequebcltur, <tc, ll literally, Caesar, the cavalry being sent be- 
fore, followed," etc. Hence, 

Rem. — When in this construction, the act expressed by the perfect 
ciple passive, is an act of the subject of the leading verb, it is better to 

it into English by the perfect participle active; thus, Ccesar, 
diet is, prof edus est, "Csesar having said these things departed." 

693. — As the perfect participle of de] onent verbs has an active sig 



284 SYNTAX. — GERUNDS. § 147 

nification, it is not necessary to resort to such a change in the use of them. 
Thus, Ccesar hcec I o cuius concilium d'milsit, " Caesar, having said these 
things, dismissed the council." With die participle of a verb, not depo- 
nent, the passive form and the ablative would be used thus ; Ccesar his 
dicti s, concilium dimisit, (fee, " Caesar, these things being said, dismissed 
the council." — The first of these expressions, besides being more direct, is 
also much more definite ; for here, there is no doubt as to who said the 
things referred to, but in the second, it is left in doubt, whether the things 
referred to were spoken by Ccesar or by some other. This doubt can be 
removed only by the context, or by express mention of the doer, which is 
not often done. In the following sentence, the two forms are combined : 
Caesar omnium r emoti s equis , cohort at us suos proelium comrnl- 
vit. — So, agros Remorum depopuldti , omnibus vie is ozdificiis- 
que incensis. C jss. 

Note. — A few instances occur in which this construction is used when 
there is no change of subject, and where a different case would have ex- 
pressed the same thing ; thus, legio ex castris Varronis, adstante et 
inspect ante ipso , for adstantis et inspectantis ipsius. 

694. — Obs. 9. The ablative absolute, in the case of deponent, as well 
as of other verbs, is used to indicate the order and connection of events 
narrated, as in the above examples ; or to mark the time of action by refer- 
ence to that of another action; as, Pythagoras, Tar quinio Super bo 
r eg n ante, in Italiam venit, "Pythagoras came into Italy in the reign of 
Tarquin the Proud." In all such cases, it is equivalent to the subjunctive 
with a connective word. Thus, his dictis, in the former example, is equi- 
valent to quum hcec dixisset — Tar quinio Superbo regnante, to quum Tar- 
quinius Super bus regndret; and so of others. 

695. — Obs. 10. The verb sum having no present participle, two nouns, 
or a noun and adjective, are used in the case absolute without a participle, 
which is supplied in English by the word being ; thus, se duce, " he (being) 
leader ;" se consule, " he (being) consul," or " in his consulship ;" so, C. Duil- 
lio et Cn. Cornelio Asind consulibus. 

696. — Obs. 11. Some word, phrase, or clause of a sentence, sometimes 
supplies the place of the substantive, and has a participle with it ir, the 
ablative; as, nondum comperto qu am region em hostes pt^Js- 
se?it; — audlto Barium appropinqudre ;—vale dicto,&a. 

697. — Obs. 12. Sometimes the noun is understood; as, par to quod 
avebas. Sometimes a plural substantive is joined with a singular participle • 
as, nobis prcesente. For the construction of Gerundives, see next section. 



698.— § 147. GERUNDS* AND GERUNDIVES. 

The Gerund is a verbal noun, in the singular number, governed in the 
oblique cases as other nouns, and having the same power of government as 



*Some Grammarians, who regard the gerund as a verbal noun, speak of 
it as such only in the oblique cases. They think that the nominative of the 
verbal is supplied by the infinitive mood, and that which is called the nomi 



§ 147 SYNTAX. — GERUNDS. 285 

the verb. As, therefore, the rules which apply to the construction of nouns 
unci verbs, apply to the gerund, it is unnecessary to repeat them here. 
All that is peculiar to the construction of the gerund, is comprised in the 
following Rules and Observations. 

699.— Rule LXL— The verb Est with the ge- 
rund for its subject, implies necessity, and governs 
the dative of the doer ; as, 

Kom. Legendum est mihi, I must read, lit. reading is to me. 

Noin. Moriendum est omnibus, All must die, lit. dying is to all. 
Ace. Scio moriendum esse mihi, I know that I must die, lit. that dying 

is to me. 

700. — EXPLANATION. The dative here is governed by est, according 
to R. II (894.) In the first and second examples, the gerund in the nomina- 
tive is the subject of est, which agrees with it by E. IV. (303.) In the third 
example, the gerund is in the accusative, and the subject of esse, by E. LVIII. 
(671.) The necessity implied in this construction is stronger than that ex- 
pressed by the participle in dus, the latter implying only that a thiug is to be 
done, or should be done, — the former that it must be done. See 214-9. 

701. — Obs. 1. The dative of the doer in this construction is often un- 
derstood ; as, Orandum est (ti bi) ut sit sdna mens in corpore sdno. 

702. — Obs. 2. The gerund in di, of the genitive case, is 
governed by substantives or adjectives ; as, 

Tempus legendi, Time of reading, 332. 

Cupidus discendi, Desirous of learning, 349. 

703. — Obs. 3. The gerund in do, of the dative case, is gov 
erned by adjectives, signifying usefulness or fitness ; as, 

Charta utilis scribendo, Paper used for writing, 382. 

Sometimes it is governed by verbs; as, adesse scribendo. Cic. Ap* 
tat habendo ensem. Virg. Is finis censendo /actus est. 

704. — Obs. fi. The gerund in dura, of the accusative case, 

native of the gerund, is really the neuter of the participle in dus, in a passive 
sense, joined with the verb est used impersonally. Thus, studendum est 
mihi, they think should be literally rendered kt it is to be studied by me." 
Though this solution is plausible, and would seem to answer in many cases, 
there are others in which we. at least, cannot see how it could be applied. 
It cannot be applied unless the participle in dus in all cases has, or may have, 
a passive sense ; but of this there is no evidence, and facts are opposed to it. 
Thus, it will hardly be admitted as a literal rendering of moriendum est om- 
nibus, to say " it is to be died by all," and it certainly cannot be so used in those 
examples in which it governs the same case that it does in its active sense ; 
thus, vtrum pace nobis an bello esset utendvm. Cic. Quum suo culque 
j u d i c i o utendvm sit. Indeed, the fact that gerunds, in all cases, do gov- 
ern the case of their own verb, seems to be opposed to their being considered 
as parts of the passive participle in dus. 



286 SYNTAX. — GERUNDS. § 14:7 

when not the subject of the infinitive, is governed by the pre- 
positions, ad, inter, &c. ; as, 

Inter docendum, In time of teaching. 

705. — Obs. 5. The gerund in do, of the ablative case, is gov- 
erned by the prepositions a, ah, de, e, ex, or in ; as, 

Poena a peccando absterret, Punishment frightens from sinning. 
Or, without a preposition, as the ablative of manner, or 
cause ; as, 

Memoria excolendo augetur, The memory is improved by -exercising it. 
Defessus sum ambidando, I am wearied with walking. 

706. — Obs. 6. The gerund, as a verbal noun, resembles the infinitive, 
and is often put' for it ; as, Est tempus legendi, or legere. The gerund, 
however, is never joined with an adjective, and is sometimes taken in a 
passive sense; as, Gum Tisidium vocaretur ad imper andum — " to re- 
ceive orders ;" urit v idendo, — " by being seen," i. e. dum videtur. 

CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES. 

707. — LXII. Gerunds governing the accusative, 
are elegantly turned into gerundives in dus, which, 
with the sense of the gerund, instead of govern- 
ing, agree with their substantive in gender, num- 
ber, and case ; as, 

Gerund, Tempus petendi pdcem, ) m - r ^ • 

n -,' rv 4. j - • r lime oi seeking peace. 

Gerundive, 1 empus petenace pacts, ) ° x 

Gerund, Ad petendam pdcem, ) rp ., . 

~ j. a j j. j - r To seeking Deace. 

Gerundive, Ad petendam pacem, ) ° A 

Gerund, A petendo pdcem, ) „ -, . 

r. -,' a t j* - r From seeking peace. 

Gerundive, A petenda pace, ) ° r 

708. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies only to the oblique cases. 
In the first of these examples, the Gerund petendi is .governed in the genitive 
by tempus according to Rule VI., 382, and then governs pacem in the accusa- 
tive by Bale XX., 436. In the gerundive form, the genitive pads is gov- 
erned by tempus, by Rule VI., 832, and the gerundive petenda agrees with it 
by Rule II., 263. In the gerund form, the gerund is governed, and then 
governs the noun. In the gerundive form, the noun is governed, and then 
the gerundive agrees with it by R. II. In order to change from the gerund 
to the gerundive, it is necessary only to change the accusative of the noun, 
into the case of the gerund, and then make the gerundive agree with it ; and 
from the gerundive to the gerund, change the noun into the accusative, and 
the gerundive into the gerund, in the same case as before. 

The following are examples to be changed : 
Gen. Consilia urbis delendai ; — civium trucidandorum ; — nominis Romdni 
extinquendi 



§ 148 % SYNTAX. — SUPINES. 287 

Dat. Perpetiendo labori idoneus ; — capcssenda? reipublicce habilis ; — nati^s 
rmserias ferendo ; — ad miserias ferendas; — oneri ferendo aptus. 

Ace. and Ab. Ad defendendam Romam ; — ab oppugnando Capuam ; — ad 
collocandum signa ; — in diripiendis castris. 

709. — Obs. T. Instead of the gerundive in the genitive plural, to agree 
with a noun in that case, the gerund in the genitive singular is often re- 
tained, probably for the sake of Euphony; as, Fuit exempt drum eli- 
gendi potestas. Cic. Facultas agrorum condonandi ; sui (pi.) con- 
douandi, instead of eligenddrum, condonandorum. Also, sometimes when 
the noun is singular and feminine ; as, ej u s (fern.) videndi cupidus. Ter. 

710. — Obs. 8. The gerunds of verbs, which do not govern the accu- 
sative, are never changed into the gerundive, except those of medeor, utor, 
abator, fruor, fun gor, and potior ; as, spes potiundi urbe, or potiundee urbis ; 
but we always say, Cupidus subveniendi tibi, never tui. 

711. — Obs. 9. After esse, fore, the gerund and the gerundive in the 
genitive (364), are used, to express tendency to a thing, or serving a cer- 
tain purpose ; as, Regium imperium initio conservandce libertatis, at que 
augendcB reipublu-ce fu er at. Sall., Cat. VI, "The regal government at 
Si st had served the pyarpose of preserving liberty, and iricreasing the state," 
[Aiebaut] e a prodend i imperii Romdni, tr ad en dee Hannibdli vic- 
torue esse, •' They said that these things had a tendency to betray the Ro- 
man government, and to give the victory to Hannibal." Liv. Quum qni- 
madvertisset plerdque dis so I vend drum religionum esse, " When he had 
perceived that most of them tended to destroy religion." Liv. 



§ 148. CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES. 

1. The Supine in um. 

712. — Kule LXIII. The supine in um is put 
after a verb of motion ; as, 

Abiit deambuldtum, He hath gone to walk. 

So, Duclre cohortes prceddtum. Lrv. Nunc venis irrlsum dominum? 
Quod in rem tuam optimum factu arbitror, te id admonitum venio. Plaut. 

713. — Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo, 
to express the signification of any verb more strongly ; as, it he perditum, 
the same with id dgit, or operam dat, ut se perdat, " he is bent on his own 
destruction."' Ter. So, ut perdUum eatis=ut perddtis ; ereptum eunt,= 
eripiunt. Sail. This supine with Iri, taken impersonally, supplies the 
place of the future infinitive passive; as, an credebas Mam sine tud 
opera "iri deductum domum ? Which may be thus resolved ; an credebas 
Iri {a te, or ab all quo) deductum (i. e. ad deducendu m) Mam do* 
mum. Ter. The supine here may be considered as a verbal substantive 
governing the accusative, like the gerund. 



288 SYNTAX. — CONJUNCTIONS, i § 149 

714. — Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after ether verbs besides those 
of motion ; as, dedit filiam nuptum ; cantatum provocemus. Tee,. Re- 
vocatus defensumpatriam; divlsit copias hiemdtum. Nep. 

715. — Obs. 3. The meaning of this supine maybe expressed by several 
other parts of the verb ; as, venit or a turn opem : or 1. Venit opem 
orandi causa, or opis orandce. 2. Venit ad orandu?n opem, or 
ad or an dam opem, 

2. The Supine in u. 

716. — Bule LXIV. The supine in u is put after 
an adjective noun; as, 

Facile dictu, Easy to tell, or to be told. 

So, nihil dictu fcedum, visuque, liaic limma tangat, intra quce puer est 
Juv. Difficilis res est inventu verus amicus ; — -fas est, or nefas est dictu ; — 
opus est scltu. Cic. 

717. — Obs. 4. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly 
ever governs any case. It is sometimes, especially in old writers, put 
after verbs of motion ; as, nunc obsondtu redeo, — "from getting provi- 
sions." Plaut. Prjmus cub it u surgat (villicus), postremus cub i turn 
eat, " let the overseer be the first to rise, and the last to go to bed? Cato. 

718. — Obs. 5. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund 
with the preposition ad; as, difficile cognitu, cognosci, or ad cognoscendum ; 
res facilis ad credendum. Cic. 

719. — Obs. 6. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the 
fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singular, are 
governed in> these cases by prepositions understood ; — the supine in um, by 
the preposition ad; and the supine in u, by the preposition in. 



§ 149.- CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. . 

Y20. — Eule LXV. The conjunctions et, ac, atque, 
nee, neque, aut, vel, and some others, couple simi- 
lar cases and moods ; as, 

Honora patrem et matrem, Honor father and mother. 
Nee legit nee scribit, He neither reads nor writes. 

721. — EXPLANATION. — Words coupled by a conjunction under this 
Kule, are in the same construction, i. e. two nominatives coupled together ara 
the subject of the same verb, or predicates of the same subject ; and nouns 
coupled together in the oblique cases are governed by the same word, as in 
the first example. Verbs thus coupled have the same subject or nominative, 
as iu the second example. 



§149 



SYNTAX. — CONJUNCTIONS. 289 



7*22. — Obs. 1. The copulative conjunctions under this Rule are such 
as et, ac, at que, etiam, que ; the disjunctives nee, neque, aut, vel, seu, slve, 
ve,neve, next; also qna?n, praeterquam, nisi, an, uempe, quamvis, necdum, sed y 
autem, verum, aud, in general, such connectives as do not imply a depend- 
ence of the following, on the preceding clause. 

723. — Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words, but also 
clauses whose construction is the same, i. e. whose subjects are in the same 
case, and their verbs in the same mood ; as, concldunt venti, fugiuntque 
nubss. 

724. — Obs. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a dif- 
ferent case : still they are connected by the copulative conjunctions ; thus, 
mea et reipubllcce interest. Here, mea and rripublica?, though in different 
cases, are in the same construction by R. XVIII. (415). So, constitit asse 
et pluris, Rule XLIV. (581). Vir magni ingenii, summdque industrid, 
Rule VII. (339), <fcc. The subjunctive being often used for the imperative 
is sometimes coupled with it; as, disce nee invideas. 

/25. — Obs. 4. The indicative and subjunctive may be connected in this 
manner, if the latter does not depend on the former. 

726. — Obs. 5. When two words coupled together have each a conjunc- 
tion, such as, et, ant, vel, sive, nee, <fcc, without being connected with a pre- 
ceding word, the first et is rendered both or likewise ; the first aid or vel, 
by either ; the first sive, by whether ; and the first nee or neque, by neither. 
So, also, turn .... turn, and cum. . . . turn, " not only . . . .but also" or "both 
. . . . and;" and so of others ; as, nunc. . . .nunc; jam,. . . .jam, <fcc. In 
such cases, the conjunctive before the first word renders it more emphatic: 
turn .... turn often mean, " at one time, ... at another time." 

727. — Note. Affirmative and negative sentences are connected by con- 
junctions in pairs, as follows: 

Affirmative. Negative. 

et — et very common. neque — neque, nee — nee, 

ei — que, not unfrequently. neque — nee, not ^infrequently. 

que — et, connecting single words. nee — neque, seldom. 
que — que, only in poetry & Sall. 

Affirmative and negative. 

et — neque, nee, very frequent. 

neque, nee — et, very frequent. 

nee, neque — que, occasionally. 

'28. — Obs. 6. After words expressing similarity or dissimilarity, ac 
and atque signify "as;" and "than;" as,fdcis ac si me roges, "you do as 
if you should ask me;" — me colit ceque atque patronum suum, "he. 
:ie as much attention as," etc.; — si altter scrlbo ac sentio, "if I 
write otherwise than I think." 

'29 — Obs. *J. Conjunctions that do not imply doubt and contingency, 
are usually joined with the indicative mood ; those which do imply doubt, 
contingency and dependence, are, for the most part, joined with the sub- 
junctive (628). 

13 



290 SYNTAX. — FIGURES. § 150 



§ 150. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure is a manner of speaking different from the regulai and or- 
dinary construction, used for the sake of beauty or force. 

730. — The figures of Syntax, or, construction, maybe reduced to four: 
Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperbdton. Of these, the first, and 
second, and third, respect the constituent parts of a sentence ; the fourth 
respects only the arrangement of words. 

731. — 1. Ellipsis, is the omission of one or more words 
necessary to complete the sense ; as. 

Aiunt, ferunt, <fcc, sc, homines. Aberant bidui, sc, iter, or itinere. Quid 
multa ? sc, dlcam. Under this may be comprehended, 

1st. Asyndeton, or the omission of a conjunction ; as, veni, vidi, vici. 
Deus optimus, tnaximus, sc, et. 

2d. Zeugma is the uniting of two nouns or infinitives to a verb which 
is applicable only to one of them ; as, pacem an bellum gerens, 
Sall., where gerens is applicable to bellum only. In this way, 
nego is sometimes used with two propositions, one of which is 
affirmative ; as, Negant Ccesdrem mansurum, postulatdque inter- 
poslta esse ; i. e. die unique postulata. 

3d. Syllepsis is when an adjective or a verb, belonging to two or more 
nouns of different genders, persons, or numbers, agrees with one 
rather than another. See examples 266, 267. 

4th. Synecdoche is the use of an accusative of the part affected instead 
of an ablative ; as, Expleri merit em nequit, 538. Virg. 

732. — 2. Pleonasm, is using a greater number of words 
than is necessary, to express the meaning ; as, 

Sic ore locuta est, "thus she spoke with her mouth" Virg. Under this 
are included, 

1st. Polysyndeton, or, a redundancy of conjunctions ; as, una Eurus 

que Notus q u e ruunt. Virg. 
2d. Eendiddys, or the expression of an idea, by two nouns connected by 

a conjunction, instead of a noun limited by an adjective or genitive ; 

as, Pater is libcimus et aur o, "We offer a libation from cups 

and from gold," instead oipateris aureis, "from golden cups." 
3d. Periphrasis, or a circuitous mode of expression ; as, teneri foetus 

ovium, " the tender young of the sheep," instead of agni, " lambs." 

733. — 3. Enallage, is a change of words, or a change of 
one gender, number, case, person, tens.e, mood, or voice, of 
the same word, for another. It includes, 

1st. Antimeria, or the using of one part of speech for another; as, nos- 
trum viv ere, for nostra vita ; co nj ugiu m videbit, for con- 
jug em, <fec. 

2d. Heterosis, or the using of one form of a noun, pronoun, or verb, for 
another ; as, Rom an us proelio victor, for Rvmaui victor cs. Trim 
cus me uustulerat, for sustulissei. Hob,. 



§ 151 SYNTAX. — LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 291 

3d. A?itiptosis, or the using of one case for another ; as, cui nunc cog* 
nomen Iulo, fur lulus. (261 and 433). Virg. Uxor invicti Jovis 
esse ?iescis, for le esse uxor em. Hor. See 675. 

4th. Synesis, or Synthesis, is adapting the construction to the sense of a 
word, rather than to its gender or number ; as, Concur sus pop u I i 
Hi i rantium ; — P ar s in crucem acti ; — s eel us qui, &c. 278 
and 292. 

5th. Anacoluthon, or a departure in the end of a sentence, from the 
construction with which it commenced. Thus, Nam nos om nes, 

quibus est alicunde aliquis objectus Idbos lucro est. Here 

the writer began as if he intended to say lucro Jiabemus, and ended 
as if he had said nobis omnibus. As it is, the nominative nos has 
no verb, and est, which, in such sentences, requires the dative of a 
person, is without it. 

734. — 4. Hyperbaton, is a transgression of the usual order of 
words or clauses. It includes, 

1st. Anastrophe, or an inversion of the order of two words; as Transira 

per et remos, for per transtra, cfec. ; — Collo dare brachia circum, for 

circumddre, <fcc. 
2d. Hysteron proteron, or reversing the natural order of the sense ; as, 

Moriamur et in media anna rudmus. Virg. Valet atque vlvit 

Ter. 
3d. Hypallage, or an interchange of constructions ; as, In nova fert ani 

mas mutatas dicere formas corpora ; for corpora mutata in novas 

formas. Dare classlbus Austros, for dare classes Austris. 
4th. Tmesis, or separating the pans of a compound word ; as, Septem 

subjecta trioni gens, for SepAentrioni. Virg. Qua; me cunque vocanl 

terras, for qucecunque, &c. 
5th. Parenthesis, or the insertion of a word or clause in a sentence, 

which interrupts the natural connection ; as, Tityre, dum redeo, 

(b rev i s est via) pasce capjellas. Virg. 

To these may be added, 

735. — Archaism, which in Syntax means the use of ancient 
forms of construction ; as, Operam abufitur, for oj)era. Ter. 
Quid fibi hanc citratio est rem? 

736. — Hellenism, or the use of Greek constructions ; as, 
Abstineto irarum, for Iris. Hor. Tempus desistere pugnce, foi 
pugnd. Virg. 



§ 151. LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 

737. — In all languages, the arrangement of words in a sentence ift dif- 
ferent ; and all, it is probable, consider the order of arrangement in their 
own language the most natural, being that to which they have themselves 
been most accustomed. In a language like the English, however, the 
words of which have but few changes of form or termination, much rnor* 



292 SYNTAX. — LATIN ARRANGEMENT. § 151 

depends on their position in a sentence than in those language I which are 
able, by the changes of form only, to indicate the relation of words to 
each other, however they may be arranged. Thus, when we say in Kng 
lish, "Alexander conquered Darius-" if we change the order of the words, 
we necessarily change the meaning also ; as, Darius conquered Alexander. 
But whether we say in Latin, Alexander vlcit Darium, or Darium vlcit 
Alexander, or Alexander Darium vlcit, or Darium Alexander vlcit, or place 
these words in any other possible order of arrangement, the meaning is 
the same, and cannot be mistaken ; because it depends, not on the position, 
but on the form of the words. This gave the Latin writer much more 
scope to arrange his words in that order which would best promote the 
strength or euphony of the sentence, without endangering its perspicuity. 
Still, even in Latin, custom has established a certain order of arrangement 
which is considered the best. And, though no certain rules can be given 
on this subject, which are applicable to every instance, the following 
general principles and Rules may be noticed. • 

738. — General principles of Latin Arrangement 

1. The word governed is placed before the word which 
governs it. 

2. The word agreeing is placed after the word with which 
it agrees. More particularly, 

739. — Rule I. The subject is generally put before the verb ) 
as, Deus mundum gubernat. 

Exc. 1. When the subject is closely connected with a clause following 
the verb, it is placed after the verb ; as, erant omnlno duo itinera, qui- 
bus, &c. 

Exc. 2. When the subject is emphatic, it usually follows the verb and 
concludes the sentence. 

740. — Rule II. The adjective or participle most cpmmonly 
follows the substantive with which it agrees. 

With few exceptions, however, the place of the adjective or 
participle is entirely arbitrary. The following usages may 
be noticed : 

1st. The adjectives, primus, medius, ultimus, extremus, summus, infimus y 
limes, supremus, reliquus, easterns, denoting the first part, the mid- 
dle part, cfec, are generally put before the substantive ; as, summus 
moyis ; extremo libro, "the top of the mountain," (fee. 

2d. When the substantive governs another in the genitive, the adjective 
generally precedes both ; as, Duo Platonis precepta. 

3d. When the substantive is governed by a preposition, the adjective is 
frequently put before the substantive; as, Hdc in questione ; mag- 
na in parte. 

4th. The adjective is often put before the substantive for the sake oi 
Euphony. 



§ 151 SYNTAX. — LATIN ARRANGEMENT. 293 

# 
5th. Is, Hie, hie, iste, are generally placed before the substantive, and, if 
used substantively, are placed before the participle. 

741. — Rule III. The relative is commonly placed after, and. 
as near as possible to its antecedent. 

Obs. 1. The relative is commonly the first word of its own clause, and 
when it stands for et Hie, et hie, et is, or for these pronouns without el, (295, 
1st,) it is always first. Sometimes, however, the relative and its clause, 
precede the antecedent and its clause. 

740. — Rule IV. The governing word is generally placed 
after the word governed ; as, Cartlw gi ni ensium dux — laudis 
avlclus — Romanorum ditissimus — hostem fudit, &c. Hence, 

06s. 2. The finite verb is commonly the last in its own- clause. To this, 
however, there are many exceptions. 

743. — Rule V. Adverbs are generally introduced before the 
word which they are intended to modify ; as, Leviter cegro- 
tantes, le niter cur ant. Cic. 

744. — Rule VI. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause 
to which they belong ; as, at si dares ; — sed profecto in omni re 
for tun a domindtur. 

Exc. 1. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are always annexed — the two first, to 
the latter of the two words which they serve to connect ; as, albus aterve. 
Cic. Boni mallque ; — and the last, to the subject which the question 
chiefly regards ; thus, loquarne ? " shall I speak f* egone loquar $ " shall I 
speak P 

Exc. 2. The conjunctions autem, eni?n, vero, quoque, quidem, are always 
placed after the introductory word of the clause, generally in the second 
place, and sometimes in the third ; etiam, igiiur, and tamen, more frequently 
in the second and the third place than in the first. 

745. — Rule VII. Words connected in sense, should be as 
close as possible to each other, and the words of one clause 
should never be mixed with those of another. 

746. — Rule VIII. Circumstances, viz : the cause, — the man- 
ner, — the instrument, — the time, — the place, &c, are put before 
the predicate ; as, 

Eum ferro occidi ; — Ego te ob egregiam virtutem semper amavi. 

747. — Rule IX. The proper name should precede the name 
of rank or profession ; as, Cicero orator. 

748. — Rule X. The vocative should either introduce the 
sentence, or be placed among the first words ; as, Credo vos, 
ju dices. 

749. — Rule XL When there is an antithesis, the words 
chiefly opposed to each other, should be as close together as 
possible ; as, Appeiis pecuniam, virtutem abjicis. 



294 syntax. — analysis: § 152 



u 



750. — Rule XII. Dependent clauses, as well as single words, 
are placed before the principal finite verb, upon which they 
chiefly depend. 

75 \ t — Rule XIII. As a general rule, where the case will ad- 
mit, it is proper to proceed from shorter to longer words, and 
from shorter to longer clauses and members of a sentence, as 
we advance towards the close. 

Hence, it will follow, that a sentence should not conclude 
with a monosyllable, when it can be avoided. 

REMARK. — These are to be considered only as general Rules, subject to 
many modifications and exceptions, according to the taste of different writers. 
However, as a general guide, with close attention to classical usage and 
euphony, they may be of use to enable the student to avoid errors on this 
subject. 



752.— § 152. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete sense ; 
us, homo mortdlis est, " man is mortal." 

All sentences are either simple or compound. 

A simple sentence contains only a single affirmation ; as, vita brevis est. 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, bis dat, qui cito dat. 

753.— SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts — the subject and 
the predicate. 

The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject. 

The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun, but may be anything, how 
ever expressed, about which we can speak or think. 

The predicate properly consists of two parts, — the attribute affirmed 
of the subject, and the copula, by which the affirmation is made; thus, 
in the sentence, vita brevis est, the subject is vita; the predicate is 
brevis est, of which brevis is the attribute, and est the copula. In most 
cases, the attribute and copula are expressed by one word ; as, equus 
currit, " the horse runs "= equus curreus est, " the horse is running." 

The name of a person or thing addressed forms no part of a sentence. 

The predicate may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a preposition 
with its case, an adverb, a participle, an infinitive mood, or clause of a 
sentence, as an attribute, connected with the subject by a substantive verb 
as a copula ; or it may be a verb which includes in itself both attribute 
and copula, and is therefore called an attributive verb. 



§ 152 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. 295 

754.— THE SUBJECT. 

The subject of a proposition is either grammatical or logical. 

I. The grammatical subject is the person or thing spoken of, unlimited 
by other words. 

The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with all 
the words or phrases by which it is limited or defined ; thus, in th^ sen- 
tence, vir bonus sai similem queer it t the grammatical subject is vir ; the 
logical, vir bonus. Again : 

II. The subject of a proposition may be either simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of one subject of thought, either unlimited, as 
the grammatical, or limited, as the logical subject 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to which 
belongs but one predicate ; as, R omul us et Re m u s fr aires erant. 

155.— MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

A grammatical subject may be modified, limited, or described in various 
ways ; as,— 

1. By a noun in apposition ; as, Cicero o r at or f actus est consul. 

2. By a noun in the genitive ; as, Ira Dei lenta est. 

3. By an adjunct; as, D e victoria Ccesaris fama perfertur. 

4. By an adjective word, i. e. an adjective, adjective pronoun, or partici 

pie ; as, Jiistitid gaudent viri b on i. — Su u s caique erat locus defim 
ties. — Vox m i ssa nescit reverti. 

5. By a relative and its clause ; as, Vir s&pit, qui pauca loquitur. 
Each grammatical subject may have several modifications ; and if it 

has none, the grammatical and logical subject are the same. 

156.— MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS. 
Modifying, or limiting words, may themselves be modified. 

1. A noun modifying another may itself be modified in all the ways id 

which a noun, as a grammatical subject, is modified. 

2. An adjective qualifying a noun may itself be modified — 

1st. By an adjunct; as, campi adproelium boni : liber a de- 
licti 8. 
2d. By a noun ; as, Major pietdte : — aiger pedibus. 

3d. By an infinitive mood or clause of a sentence, a gerund, or a 
supine; as, Homo dignus cantdri—dignus qui irnpe- 
r e t — digitus ut fig at p a I am in pariet e. — Charla 
ntilis scriben do. — Monstrum mirabile diet u. 

4th. By an adverb; as, Homo longe dissimilis ; — -facile prin- 
ceps. 

3 An adverb may be modified — 

1st. By another adverb ; as, m ulto magis. 

2d By a substantive in an oblique case ; as, convenienter naturae, 
optime omnium ; proxime cast r is. 



296 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. § 152 

757. — The subject of a proposition may be an infinitive mood, with or 
without a subject; or a clause of a sentence; as, humanum est err are. 
Incerta pro certis habere stultissimum est. Nunc opus est, tt 
anion o vale re. Rellquum est, ut officii s cert em us inter nos 

158.— THE PREDICATE. 

I. The Predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical 
The grammatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula, not 

modified by other words. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words or phrases ' 
that modify it ; thus, vir bonus sui si mil em queer it ; the grammatical 
predicate is qucerit ; the logical, qucerit similem sui. 

When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms, the logical 
and grammatical are the same. 

II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound. 

A simple predicate affirms but one thing of its subject ; as, vita br evis 
est ; ignis urit . 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates affirmed 
of one subject ; as, Caesar venit, vldit, vie it. Probitas lauddtur 
et alget. 

759.— MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

The grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in different waya 
I. When the attribute in the predicate is a noun, it is modified — 

1. By a noun or pronoun limiting or describing the attribute ; as, honor 
*st prazmium virtictis. Invidia est supplicium suum. 

2. By an adjective or participle limiting the attribute ; as, ira furor 
brevis est. 

II. YvThen the grammatical predicate is an attributive verb, it is modi 
fied— 

1. By a noun or pronoun as its object; as, res amlcos invenit. Laus 

debetur virtuti. Sajnens imperat cupiditatibus. Venter 
caret auribus. 

2. By an adverb ; as, bis dat qui cito dat ; be n e scribit. 

3. By an adjunct; as, venit in urbem; ex urbe venii. 

4. By an infinitive ; as, cupio disc ere. 

5. By a dependent clause; as, poeta dicit I ram esse brevem insa- 

nia m. — Gonstituit ut ludi fierent. 

760. — Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and other words modifying the 
predicate, may themselves be modified, as similar words are when modi- 
fying the subject 

Infinitives and participles modifying the predicate, may themselves be 
modified in all respects, as the attributive verb is modified. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 
7B1. — A Compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentence* 



§ 152 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. 297 

or propositions connected together. The propositions which make up a 
compound sentence, are called members or clauses. 

762. — The propositions or clauses of a compound sentence, are either 
independent or dependent ; in other words, coordinate, or subordinate. 

An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itself. 

A dependent clause is one that makes complete sense only in connection 
with another clause. 

The clause on which another depends, is called the leading clause ; its 
subject is the leading subject; and its predicate, the leading predicate. 

763. — Clauses of the same kind, whether independent or dependent, 
are connected by such conjunctions as et, ac, at que, nee, neque, aut, vcl, efce. 

764. — Dependent clauses having finite verbs, are connected with their 
leading clauses in three different ways. 

1. By a relative ; as, vir sapit, qui pauca loquitur. 

2. By a conjunction ; as, loqudces, s i sapiat, vltet. 

3. By an adverb; &s,ubi quid ddtur otii, illudo chartis ; rogabat cur 

unquam fugisset. 

765. — A subordinate clause, consisting of an infinitive with its sub- 
ject, is joined to a leading clause without a connecting word ; as, gaudeo 
te valere. 

ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

766. — A compound sentence is sometimes converted into a simple one, 
by rejecting the connective, and changing the verb of the dependent clause 
into a participle. A simple sentence thus formed is called an abridged 
'proposition ; as, bello confecto discessit, for quum bellurn confectum. esset, 
discessit. Ccesar, hcec locutus, profectus est, for quum Ccesar hcec locutus 
esset, profectus est. 

161.— EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS. 

1. Vita brevis est. 

This is a simple sentence, of which 
The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is vita. 
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is brevis est, in which 
brevis is the attribute, and est the copula. 

2. Labuntur anni. 
This is a simple sentence, of which 

The logical subject, and also the grammatical, is anni. 
The logical predicate, and also the grammatical, is labuntur, an attribu- 
tive verb including both the attribute and copula. 

3. Verum decus in virtute positum est. 
This is a simple sentence, of which 
The logical subject is verum decus. 
The logical predicate is, in virtute positum est. 

13* 



29S SY2JTAX. — ANALYSTS. § 152 

The grammatical su. ject is decus, qualified by the adjective verum. 
The grammatical predicate is podium est, modified by the adjunct in 
virtute. 

4. Romulus et Remus fratres erant. 

This is a simple sentence, having a compound subject. 
Tt e logical subject is Romulus et Remus, compound, consisting of two 
subjects connected by et. 

The logical predicate is fratres ^rant. 

The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

5. Probitas lauddtur et alget. 

This is a simple sentence with a compound predicate. 

The logical subject is probitas. 

The logical predicate is lauddtur et alget, compound, the parts of which 

are connected by et. 
The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 

6. Video meliora proboque ; deteriora sequor. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two independent or coordi 

nate clauses in juxta position. 
The first clause is a simple proposition with a compound predicate, of 

which . 

The logical subject is ego, understood. 

The logical predicate is video meliora proboque. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is video probo que, compound, consisting of 
two predicates connected by que, both modified by their object, ne 
gotia, understood, and that qualified by the adjective meliora. 

The second clause, deteriora sequor, is a simple proposition, of which 

The logical subject is ego, understood. 

The logical predicate is deteriora sequor. 

The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. 

The grammatical predicate is sequor, modified by its object, negotia, un 
derstood, qualified by the adjective, deteriora. 

7. Quce in terra glgnuntur, ad usum hominis omnia creantur. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of one leading, and one de 
pendent clause, connected by quai. 

The leading clause, ad usum hominis omnia creantur, is a simple sen 
tence, or proposition, of which 

The logical subject is omnia {negotia), restricted by the relative clause, 

quce in terra gignwntur. 
The logical predicate is, ad usum hominis creantur. 
The grammatical subject is negotia understood, qualified by the adjec- 
tive ovinia, and restricted by the relative clause. 



§ 152 SYNTAX — analysis! 29S 

The grammatical predicate is creantur, modified by the adjunct ad usum 
and that modified hyhotmnis. 

The dependent clause is quce in terra gignuntur, of which 

The logical subject is the quce, which, beiug a relative, connects the de- 
pendent with the leading clause. (125.) 

The logical predicate is, in terra gignuntur. 

The grammatical subject is quce, the same as the logicaL 

The grammatical predicate is gignuntur, modified by the adjunct in 
terra. 

CONSTRUING, 

768. — In Latin and English, the general arrangement of a sentence is 
the same, i. e. the sentence commonly begins with the subject and ends 
with the predicate. But the order of the words in each of these parts is 
usually so different in Latin, from what it is in English, that one of the 
first difficulties a beginner has to encounter with a Latin sentence, is to 
know how " to take it in," or to arrange it in the order of the English. 
This is technically called construing or giving the order. To assist in this, 
some advantage may be found by carefully attending to the following 

DIRECTIONS FOR BEGINNERS. 

769. — Direction 1. As all the other parts of a sentence depend upon the 
two leading parts, namely, the subject or NOMINATIVE, and the predicate 
or VERB ; the first thing to be done with every sentence, is to find out 
these. In order to this, 

First. Look for the leading verb, which is always in the present, imper- 
fect, perfect, pluperfect, or future, of the indicative, or in the imperative 
mood,* and usually at or near the end of the sentence. 

Second. Having found the verb, observe its number and person ; this 
will aid in finding its nominative, which is commonly a noun or pronoun 
in the same number and person with the verb, commonly before it, and 
near the beginning of the sentence, though not always so, 739, R. I. with 
exceptions. 

770. — Direction 2. Having thus found the nominative and verb, and 
ascertained their meaning, the sentence may be resolved from the Latin 
into the English order, as follows : 

1st. Take the Vocative, Exciting, Introductory, or connecting words, if 
there are any. 

2d. The NOMINATIVE. 

3d. Words limiting ov explaining it,.i. e. words agreeing with it, or gov- 
erned by it, or by one another, where they are found, till you come to the 
verb. 

4th. The VERB. 

5th. Words limiting or explaining it, i. e. words which modify it, are 
governed by it, or depend upon it. 759, II. 

* All the other parts of the verb are generally used in subordinate clauses. 
So, also, is the pluperfect indicative. In oblique discourse, the leading verb 
is in the infinitive. 652. 



800 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. § 152 

. 
6th. Supply everywhere the words understood 

Tth. If the sentence be compound, take the parts of it severally as they 
depend one upon another, proceeding with each of them as above. 

771. — Direction 3. In arranging the words for translation, in the sub 
ordinate parts of a sentence, observe the following 

712.— RULES FOR CONSTRUING. 

I. An oblique case, or the infinitive mood, is put after the word that 
governs it. 

JExc. The relative and interrogative are usually put before the govern- 
ing word, unless that be a preposition ; if it is, then after it. 

II. An adjective, if no other word depend upon it, or be coupled with 
it, is put before its substantive ; but if another word depend upon it, or 
be governed by it, it is usually placed after it. 

III. The participle is usually construed after its substantive, or the 
word with which it agrees. 

IV. The relative and its clause should, if possible, come immediately 
after the antecedent. 

Y. When a question is asked, the nominative comes after the Verb (in 
English, between the auxiliary and the verbj. Interrogative words, how- 
ever, such as quis, quotus, quantus, uter, (fee, come before the verb. 

YI. After a transitive active verb, look for an accusative ; — and after a 
preposition, for an accusative or ablative ; and arrange the words accord- 
ingly 

VII. Words in apposition must be construed as near together as 
possible. 

VIII. Adverbs, adverbial phrases, prepositions with their cases, circum- 
stances of time, place, cause, manner, instrument, <fcc, should be placed, in 
general, after the words which they modify. The case absolute commonly 
before them, and often first in the sentence. 

IX. The words of different clauses must not be mixed together, but 
each clause translated by itself, in its order, according to its connection 
with, or dependence upon, those to which it is related. 

X. Conjunctions are to be placed before the last of two words, or sentences 
connected. 

773. — Examples of Hesofoition. 

First. Etenim omnes artes, quae ad humanitatem pertinent 
liabent quoddam commune vinculum, et quasi cognatione qua- 
dam inter se continentur. Cic. 

1. In looking over this sentence, according to Direction first, we find the 
first leading verb to be habent, which must have a plural nominative. 
This leads us at once to artes, as the nominative. The nominative and 
verb being thus found on which the other parts depend, then 

•2. By direction 2, the general arrangement will be — 



§ 153 SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS. 301 

1. Connective word, etenim. 

2. NOMINATIVE, artes. 

3. Words limiting and explaining, omnes, quce ad humanitatem 

pertinent. 

4. The VERB, habent. 

5. Words governed by it, quoddam commune vinculum. 

3. Then by the rules in direction 3, the words in each of these divisions, 
will b<; arranged thus: 1. Etenim ; 2. and 3. o?n?ies artes, (R. II.) quce (R. 
III.) pertinent ad }tumartitdtem y (R. VIII.) 4. habent , 5. quoddam communt 
vinculum, (R. II.) 

By proceeding in the same manner with the next clause, the whole will 
then stand thus : 

Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem, habent quoddam 
commune vinculum, et continentur inter se quasi quadam cognatione; — 
and may be translated as follows : 

" For all the arts which pertain to liberal knowledge (civilization), have 
a certain common bond, and are connected together as if by a certain 
affinity between them." 

The pupil will now see, that in the first clause, or simple sentence, the 
grammatical subject is artes ; the logical — omnes artes quce ad humanita- 
tem pertinent. — The grammatical predicate is habent ; the logical — liabent 
quoddam commune vinculum (75S-1) ; and so with the next clause. 

In like manner proceed with every new simple sentence, or with every 
succeeding clause of a compound sentence. 



774.— § 153. ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL 
PARSING. 

Having arranged and translated a sentence, the next thing is to parse 
it, in doing which, every word should be fully described by its accidents, 
traced to its primitive, if a derivative, — analyzed into its parts if com- 
pound, and its concord or government pointed out. The following scheme, 
with each part of speech, may be useful to the beginner. 

1. Noun. — 1. Kind ; 2. Gender ; 3. Declension ; 4. Decline ; 5. Derived 
from (if derived); 6.. It is found in case; 7. Number; 8. is the nomi- 
native to , or the predicate nominative after (if the nominative) ; 

is governed by — (if governed) ; 9. Rule. 

2. Adjective. — 1. Declension; 2. Decline it; 3. Compare it (if com 
pared); 4. It is found in — case; 5. Number; 6. Gender; 7. agrees with 
— ; 8. Rule. 

3. Pronoun. — 1. Kind (i. e. personal, relative or adjective,); 2. Decline 
it ; then — 

If personal, 3. Person; 4. found in — case; 5. Number; 6. Reason of 

the case ; 7. Rule ; 8. stands for — 
If a Relative pronoun, 3. found in — case ; 4. Number ; 5. Reason of the 

case ; 6. Rule ; 7. Its antecedent ; 8. Rule. 



302 SYNTAX. — PARSING. § 153 

If an Adjective pronoun ; then, 3. Kind (i. e. possessive, indefinite, de- 
monstrative, &c), 4. It is found in — case; 5. Number; 6. Gender 4 
7. Agrees with ; 8. Rule. 

4. Verb. — 1. Kind, viz: Transitive, or Intransitive. 2. Conjugation (or 
Irregular, if it is so) ; 3. Conjugate it ; 4. Derived from (if derived) ; 5 
Compounded of (if compounded) ; 6. It is found in — tense ; 7. Mood ; 8 
Voice; 9. Person; 10. Number; 11. agrees with— as its subject; 12. Rule; 
13. give a Synopsis. 

5. Adverb. — 1. Derived from (if derived) ; 2. Compounded of (if com 
pounded) ; 3. Compared (if compared) ; 4. It modifies ; 5. Rule. 

6. Preposition. — 1. Governs case; 2. Rule; 3. It points out the re 

lation between and . 

7. Interjection. — 1. Kind ; 2. Governs, or is put with the- case ; 3 

Rule. 

8. Conjunction. — 1. Kind; 2. Connects ; 3. Rule. 

775. — Example of Parsing by the foregoing 
Scheme. 

The sentence construed (773) may serve as an example of Etymological 
and Syntactical parsing, and for this purpose we arrange it in the order 
of translation, as above. 

" Etenim omnes artes, quae pertinent ad humanitatem, habent quoddam 
commune vinculum, et continentur inter se quasi quadam cognatione." 
Etenim . Conjunction, casual, connecting the following sentence with the 
preceding, as containing the cause or reason of what is there 
stated. 
omnes . . . An adjective, third declension, omnis, -is, -e, &c. ; not -compared, 
because incapable of increase, — in the nominative, plural, fem- 
inine, and agrees with artes, (Rule,) "An adjective agrees," &q 
artes ... A noun (or substantive), feminine, third declension, ars* artis y 
<fcc. — in the nominative plural, — the nominative to, (or subject 
of,) habent. . - 

guo3 .... Relative pronoun, — in the nominative plural, feminine, nomina- 
tive to pertinent, agrees with its antecedent artes, Rule III., and 
connects its clause with artes which it restricts. 

pertinent, Verb intransitive, second conjugation, pertineo, -ere, -ui, perten- 
tum ; compounded of per, and teneo, — in the present indicative, 
active, third person plural, and agrees with quce. Rule IV. 
" A verb agrees," <fcc. 

* As all nouns arc common except proper nouns; to save time in parsing, 
this may always be taken for granted, mentioning, however," when the noun 
is proper. For the same reason, the words " gender, 1 ' " number,"' " mood," 
" tense," may be omitted, these being sufficiently indicated by the words 
masculine, sinc/vlar, indieatiTe, &c. 



§ 153 SYNTAX. — PARSING. 303 

ad Preposition, governs the accusative, and shows the relation be- 
tween pertinent and humanitdtem. 

humanitdtem, Noun, feminine, third declension, hnmanitas, — &ti&, <fcc. Ab- 
stract, derived from Inananus (33-2), in the accusative, singu- 
lar, governed by ad. Rule XLVIII. "Twenty-eight preposi- 
tions," <tc. 

Jidbent, . . Verb transitive, second conjugation, habeo, -ere, -ui, -itum, — in 
the present indicative active, third person plural — and agrees 
with artes. Rule IV. " A verb agrees," <£c. Synopsis. 

quoddam, Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, quondam, tic, compounded 
of quis and the syllable dam. — in the accusative, singular, 
neuter, and agrees with vinculum. Rule II. " An adjective 
agrees," die. 

vinculum, Noun, neuter, second declension, vinculum, -i, <tc. — in the accu- 
sative singular, governed by habent Rule XX. " A transitive 
verb in the active voice," etc. 

et, ...... A conjunction, copulative, connecting continentur with habent, 

which are consequently in the same construction (721), and 
have the same nominative, artes. 

continentur, A verb transitive, second conjugation ; contiveo, continere. con- 
tinui, contentum ; compounded of con and teneo, — in the present 
indicative passive, third person plural, and agrees with artes. 
Rule IV. " A verb agrees," <fcc. Synopsis. 

inter, ... A preposition which governs the accusative, and here points out 
the relation of reciprocity between the individuals represented 
by se. 118-5. 

se, Substantive pronoun, third person, in the accusative plural, femi- 
nine, governed by inter. Rule XLVIII. " Twenty-eight pre- 
positions," <te\ refers to artes, the subject of continentur, and 
is here taken recijjrocally. 118-5. 

quasi, . . An adverb of manner modifying continentur. Rule XLV. "Ad- 
verbs are joined," <fcc. 

quddam, Indefinite adjective pronoun, quldam, quondam, &c, compounded 
of quis and the syllable dam, — in the ablative singular, and 
agrees with cognatione. Rule II. "An adjective agrees," die. 

cognatione, A noun, feminine, third declension, cognatio, -onis, <kc, from 
cogndtus, " related by birth," (from con and nascor) — in the ab- 
lative of manner, relating to coniineniur inter se. Rule XXXV. 
" The cause, manner," <fcc. 

Note. — In this way, by stating everything respecting a word in the 
shortest manner, and without waiting to be questioned, parsing may be 
done rapidly, and much time saved ; and then such questions may be put 
as will draw attention to anything not included in the above scheme. By 
a little attention, on the part of the teacher, in leading the pupil to under- 
stand and apply the preceding rules for arranging a sentence in the order 
of translation, he will save much time and labor to himself afterwards ; 
and teach the learner to form the important habit of reasoning out a diffi- 
cult sentence, and so, by repeal ?d victories, to gain confidence in his own 
powers 



304 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. § 154-5 



PART FOURTH. 



PROSODY. 

776. — Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of the 
quantity of syllables, and the construction of verses ; in other 
words, of Quantity and Metre. 



§ 154. OF QUANTITY. 

777. — Quantity means the relative length of time taken 
up in pronouncing a syllable. 

1. In respect of quantity, every syllable is either long or 
short When a syllable is sometimes long, and sometimes 
short, it is said to be common. 

2. The quantity of syllables is determined by certain es- 
tablished rules ; or, when no rule applies, — by the authority 
of the poets. 

3. The rules of quantity are either general or special ; the 
former apply alike to all the syllables of a word ; the latter, 
to particular syllables. 



§ 155. GENERAL RULES. 

778. — Rule I. A vowel before another vowel is short ; as, 
deus, alius, nihil. 

779. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to a vowel before another 
vowel or diphthong in a different syllable, whether it be in the same, or in 
a different word. The letter 7i, in verse, being considered as only a breathing, 
is wholly disregarded ; hence, such words as, nihil, mihi, ohe, &c, come under 
this rule. A diphthong before a vowel does not come under this rule, except 
as in Eule V., Exc. 1. 

780. EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A is long in der, Cat, aulai, terrai, and the like. 

2. E is long after i in the genitive and dative of the fifth declension 

as, speciei; not after i, it is common. 
E is long in §heu, Pompei. 



§ 155 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. 30O 

3. / Dot before er, is loDg in fio; as, flo, flcbam. Also in alius, the 

genitive of alius. 
I is common in Diana [Liana or Diana), and genitives in ius ; but 
is short in alterius. Genitives in lus, in prose, have I lung. 

4. is common in Ohe. 

6. Greek words vary. As a general rule, when the vowel before another 
represents a long vowel or diphthong in the Greek word, it is long ; other- 
wise it is short. 

781. — Rule II. A vowel before two consonants, or a double 
consonant, is long by position ; as, 

arma, /alio, axis, gaza, major. 
7S2. — EXPLANATION.— When a final syllable is long by another rule, 
this rule does not apply ; the double consonants under this rule are, the same 
consonant doubled; as, II, tt, rr, &c, and the letters,,;, x, and z, equivalent 
to dg, ks } ds. 

7 8 3. — EXCEPTIONS. 

1. A short vowel in the end of a word, before two consonants in the 
next, is common; before sc, sp, sq, st, it is usually long; before a double 
consonant, it is short. 

2. A vowel before j, is short in compounds of jugum ; as, bzjugus. 
784. — Rule III. A vowel before a mute and a liquid, is 

common ; as, volucris, or volucris. 

785. — EXPLANATION.— Under this rule, the vowel must be naturally 
short, and the mute must come before the liquid, and be in the same syllable 
with it. But if the vowel is naturally long, it remains so ; as, matrix (from 
[unrip), salubris, &c. If the mute and the liquid are in different syllables, 
the vowel preceding is long by position ; as, dbluo, obruo. In Latin words, 
the liquids are I and r only. In Greek words, I, r, m, n. 

786. — Obs. 1. This rule is properly an exception to Rule II. A short 
vowel in the end of a word, is seldom affected by a mute and a liquid in 
the next. 

787. — Rule IV. A contracted syllable is always long ; as, 
Nil, for nihil ; ml, for mild; alius, for aliius ; It, for lit; sodes, for si 
aitdes ; nolo, for non volo ; blgce, for bijugce ; scilicet, for scire licet, &c. 

788. — Rule V. A diphthong is long ; as, Ccesar, Aurum, 
JSuboea. 

789. EXCEPTIONS. 

1. Prai, in composition, before a vowel, is commonly short ; as, pr&lre 
praustus, <kc. 

2. Also. 03 is sometimes short in the end of a word, when the next be- 
gins with a vowel ; as, Insults Ionio, &c. 

Note. — U, after q and g, does not form a diphthong with a vowel fol- 
lowing it, but has a force similar to the English w ; as, lingua, queror, <tc. 
pronounced lingica, kweror. 8-2. 



306 PEOSODY. — QUANTITY. § 156-7 

SPECIAL RULES. 

§ 156. FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 

790. — Rule VI. Preterites of two syllables lengthen the 
former ; as. veni, vldi, vici. 

791. — Exc. 1. Those which are short by Rule I; as, rui, lui, (fee. 

Exc. 2. Seven have the first syllable short ; viz : bibi, dedi, fidi (from 
findo), scidi, steti, stiti, and tuli. 

792, — Rule VII. Preterites which double the first syllable, 
shorten the first and second; as, cecidt, tefigi, pepuli, &c, from 
eddo, tango, pello. 

Exc. Cecldi, from ccedo ; and pepedi, have the second long. 

793. — Rule VIII. Supines of two syllables lengthen the 
former ; as, casum, motum, visum, from eddo, moveo, video, 

794. — Exc. Ten have the first syllable short; viz: cxtum (from cieo), 
datum, itum, litum, — quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, — situm, and statum. 

795. — Rule IX. In polysyllables, a, e, and u, are long be- 
fore turn, of the Supine ; as, ainatum, deletum, indutum. 

796. — Rule X. In polysyllables, i is short before turn, of 
the Supine ; as, momtum. I is long in divlsum. 

797.— —Exc. But Supines in Itum, from preterites in ivi, have i long 
as, cuplvi, cupltum ; audlvi, audltum, &a. 

798. — Obs. Recenseo has recensltum, from ui in the preterite, because 
originally from censio, censlvi. Eo and its compounds have i short ; as, 
itum, redltum, <fcc. Except a?nbio, ambltum, fourth conjugation. 

799. — Rule XI. Participles in rus have u long in the penult ; 
as, amaturus, &c. 



800.— § 157. INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 

1 . A noun is said to increase, when any of its cases has more 
syllables than the nominative singular; as, rex, regis ; sermo< 

sermonis. 

2. With only few exceptions, nouns have but one increase in the singular 
number : iter, supellex, and compounds of caput ending in ps, have two ; 
as, itineris, supellectilis, prcecipitix, from praceps. 

3. The inciement, or increasing syllable, to which the following rules 
apply, is never the last syllable, but the one preceding it, if there is only 
one increment ; or the two preceding it, if there are two. 

4. The rules for the increase of nouns, apply to adjectives and parti- 
ciples. 

5. Nouns of the fourth declension have no increment in the singular; 
those of tho first and fifth, have none but what come under Rule I. (778). 



§ 157 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. 307 

and its exceptions. (780.) In the second declension, those only increase in 
the singular which end in r, according to the following — 

801. — Rule. The increment of the second declension is 
short ; as — 

Pueri, viri, saturi, <fcc, from puer, vir, satur. 
Exc. But Iber and Celtiber, have Iberi and Celtiberi. 

INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION, 

802. — XII. Increments of the third declension, have a and o 
long ; e, t, and u, short ; as — 

Pietatis, honoris, mulieris, lapidis, murmuris. 

Rules with Exceptions. 

A. 

803. — 1. Increments in a, of the third declension, are long. 

Exc. 1st. The increment in a, from masculines in al and ar is short, also 

from par and its compounds ; — from anas, mas, vas (yadis), 

baccar, hepar, jubar, lar, nectar, and sal. 
Exc. 2d. The increment in a, from nouns in s, with a consonant before it, 

is short; as, Arabs, Arabis. 
Exc. 3d. The increment in a, from Greek nouns in a, -utis ; and as, -adis, 

is short; as, poema, poematis ; lampas, lampddis. 
Exc. 4th. Also the following in ax; viz: abax, anthrax, Atax, Atrax, 

climax, colax, cor ax, dropax, fax, harpax, panax, phi/lax, smi- 

lax, and styrax, increase with a short. 

o. 

804. — 2. Increments in o, of the third declension, are long. 

Exc. 1st. The increment in o, from neuter nouns is short; as, marmor, 
mar m or is ; corpus, corporis. But os, oris, and neuter com- 
paratives increase in o long ; ador has adoris, or adoris. 

Exc. 2d. The increment in o, from nouns in s with a consonant before it, is 
short; as, scrobs, scrobis ; inops, inopis. But Cecrops, C r y clops, 
and Hydrops, have 6 long. 

Exc. 3d. Generally from Gentile and Greek nouns in o and on, the incre- 
ment is short; as, Macedo, Macedbnis ; but some are long, 
and some are common. 

Exc. 4th. Greek nouns in tor, shorten the increment ; as, Hector — oris. 

Exc. 5th. Greek nouns in pus (-w's) ; as, tripus, Polypus ; also, arbor, 
memor, bos, compos, impo.% and lepus, have o short in the in- 
crement; as, tripus, tripodis, <fcc. 

E. 
805. — 3. Increments in e, of the third declension, are short. 



808 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. . § 157 

Exc 1st, The increment in -mis from en and o is long ; as, Siren, Sirenis; 

A.nio, Anienis. 
Exc. 2d. The increment in e is long, from hceres, locuples, mansues, merces y 

and quies. Also, from lber and ver — from lex, rex, and vervex 

— plebs, seps, and halec. 
Exc. 3d. Greek nouns in er and es increase e long ; as, crater, crateris ; 

magnes, magnetis. 

I. 

806. — 4. Increments in t, of the third declension, are short. 

Exc. 1st. Verbals in trix, and adjectives in ix, have i long; as victrix, 

victricis ; felix, fellcis. 

Also, cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, matrix, perdix, 

phcenix, radix, and vibex. 
Exc. 2d. Greek nouns in is and in, with the genitive in inis, increase 

long ; as, Sal amis, Salamlnis. 
Exc. 3d. Dis, gits, and lis, with Nesis, Quiris, and Samnis, increase long. 

u. 

807. — 5. Increments in w, of the third declension, are short. 

Exc. 1st. Genitives in udis, uris, and utis, from nominatives in us, have 
the increase long ; as, palus, paludis, &c. But Ligus, intercus t 
and pecus, increase with u short. 

Exc. 2d. Fur, frux, lux, and Pollux, have u long. 

Y. 

808. — 6. Increments in ?/ are short. 

Exc. Greek nouns, with the genitive in ynis, have the increase long. 
Also, Bombyx, Ceyx, and gryps, which increase long. 

INCREMENTS OF THE PLURAL NUMBER. 

809. — A noun in the plural number, is said to increase, when 
it has more syllables in any case, than in the nominative plural. 

810. — An increment in the plural, can occur only in the genitive, 
dative, and ablative; and in these, it is the syllable next to the last. 
When any of these cases has no more syllables than the nominative, it 
has no plural increment. Thus, serrnommi, pueris, capitum, have no plural 
increase, because they have no more syllables than sermones, pueri, capita , 
still, they all have the increment of the singular, because they have more 
syllables than sermo, puer, and caput. But sermoinbus, puerorum, and 
capilibus, have both the singular and plural increment. 

81 1. — Rule XIII. Plural increments in a, e, and o, are long ; 
in i and w, short ; as, 

Masarum, rerurh, virorum, partibus, lacubus. 
*Vom Muscp* res, vlri, partes, lacus. 



§ 158 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. 809 

812. — EXPLANATION.— All the increments of the singular remain in 
the plural, and to these the plural increment is added. The rule here given, 
applies to the plural increments only, and not to the increments of the sin- 
gular in the plural. Thus, mithilribus from iter, the second and third syl- 
lables are increments of the singular, to be found in itineris j the fourth is 
the plural increment, which comes under this rule. 



§ 158. INCREMENT OF VERBS. 

813. — A verb is said to increase when it has more syllables in any 
part, than in the second person singular, of the present indicative, active ; 
as. ctmaSj enrtdtis, amabatis, &e. — A verb in the active voice may have three 
increments, imd in the passive four. If there is but one increment, it is 
the syllable next the last. If there are two, the second increment is the 
syllable next the last, and the first the syllable preceding that, efce. ; thus, 

1 12 12 3 

a -mas, — am-a-mus, — arn-a-ba-mus, — am-av-er-a-mus, <fec. 

The increments of deponent verbs, are determined in the same manner 
as if they had an active form. 

814. — Rule XIV. In the increments of verbs, a, e, and o 
are long ; i and w, short ; as, 

Amaremus, amatote; legimus, possumus. 

815. — Exceptions in A. 

1. The first increment of do is short; as, damns, ddbamus, daremus, &c. 

Exceptions in E. 

2. E is short before ram. rim^ and ro. 

But when contracted by syncope, it is long ; a.s,flera?n, for fleveram. 

3. In the third conjugation, e is short before r in the first in- 
crease of the present and imperfect ; as, 

Zegere, legerem, Act. Legereris, legerere, legere, Pass. 

4. In the first and second conjugations, e is short in — beris 
and — here. 

Note. — erunt and -Zre in the perfect come under the general rule ; some- 
times they are shortened. 887-5. 

Exceptions in I. 

5. In preterite tenses, i is long before v; as — 
Audivi, audlvuram, audlverim, (fee. 



310 PROSODY.— QUANTITY § 159 

6. In the first increase of the fourth conjugation, except 
4mus of the perfect, i not before a vowel is always long ; as, 

P?es. venlmus ; Perf. venimus. So, also, ibam, and ibo, from eo. 

7. /is long in slmus, sltis, vellmus, v e litis ; and their com- 
pounds ; as, possimus, nolimus, &c. 

8. In rimus and ritis of the future perfect indicative, and 
perfect subjunctive, i is common ; as, 

Dixerimus, or dixerimus ; vicUritis or videritis. 

Note. — U long before turn of the supine comes under Rules VIII. and 
IX. It is long also in the penult of the perfect participle by the same 
rules, because the perfect participle is always derived from the supine. 



§ 159. QUANTITY OF PENULT SYLLABLES. 

816. — For the quantity of penult syllables, no definite rule can be 
given which is not rendered nearly useless by the number of exceptions 
occurring under it. The following observations are usually given rather 
as a general guide, than certain rules ; and they might be easily extended, 
were it of any practical advantage. 

1. Patronymics in IDES or ADES usually shorten the 
penult ; as, 

Priamides, Atlantiades, <fec. Unless they come from nouns in eus ; as, 
Peltdes, Tydides, <ka. 

2. Patronymics, and similar words, in AIS, EIS, ITIS, 
OIS, OTIS, INE, and ONE commonly lengthen the penult; 

as, 

Achats, Ptolemais, Chryseis, JEneis, Memphitis, Latois, Icariotis, Nerine, 
Acrlsione. Except Thebuis, and Phocais short; and Nereis, which is 
common. — Nereis or Nereis. . - 

3. Adjectives in ACUS, ICUS, ID US, and IMUS, for the 
most part shorten the penult; as, 

A&gyptiaeus, academicus, lepidus, legitwius : also superlatives ; as, for- 
tissimus, &q. Except opticus, amicus, apricus, pudicus, ?nendicus, aittlcus, 
posticus, fidus, hi fidus (from, fido), bimus, quadrimus, patrimus.matrimus, 
opimus; and the two superlatives, imus, and primus: but pcrfidus, from 
per and fides, has the penult sh^rt. 

4. Adjectives in AL1S, ANUS, ARUS, IVUS, ORUS, 
OS US, lengthen the penult; as, 

Dotalis, urbanus, avarics, cestivus, decor us, arenjsus. Except barbarus % 
opiparus. 



§ 159 PKOSODY. — QUANTITY. 311 

5. Verbal adjectives in ILIS shorten the penult; as agilis, 
facilis, &c. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen it; as, 

Anllis, civil is, herllis, (fee. To these add exllis, subtilis ; and names of 
months, ApriUs, Qninctllis, Sextllis : Except humilis, par ills ; and also 
sinulis. But all adjectives in atilis, are short; as, versatilis, volatilis, urn- 
bratilis, plicatllis, Jtuviatilis ; saxatilis, <fec. 

6. Adjectives in IJVUS, derived from words denoting inani- 
mate things, as plants, stones, &c., also from adverbs of time, 
commonly shorten the penult ; as, 

Amaracinus, crocinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus ; adamantinus, ergs 
talluius, crastlnus, pristinus, perendlnus, carinus, annofinus, cfec. 

Other adjectives in INUS are long ; as, 

Agnmus, canlnus, leporlnits, binus, trinus, qumus, austrinus, clandestine 
Latlnus, marlnus, suplnus, vespertlnus, cfec. 

7. Diminutives in' OL US, OLA, OLUM ; and ULUS, 
ULA, UL UM, always shorten the penult ; as, 

Urceolus, filiola, musceolum ; lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum, <fcc. 

8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult ; as, 
Oppiddtim, virltim, tributim. Except affdtim, perpetim, and statim. 

9. Desideratives in URIO shorten the antepenult, which 
in the second and third persons, is the penult ; as, 

Esuno, esuris, esicrit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that syllable 
as, ligurio, liguris ; scaturio, scaturis, <fec. 

817.— PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

1. The following proper names lengthen the penult : Abdera, Abydus, 
Adonis, iEsopus, iEtolus, Ahala, Alaricus, Alcides, Amy else, Andronicus. 
Anubis, Archimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, Aristides, Aristobulus, 
Aristogiton, Arpinum, Artabanus ; Brachmanes. Busiris, Buthrotus ; Ce- 
thegus, Chalcedon. Cleobulus, Gyrene, Cythera, Curetes ; Daiici, Demom- 
cus. Diomedes. Diores, Dioscuri ; Ebudes, Eriphylc, Eubulus, Euclldes, 
Euphrates, Eumedes, Euripus, Euxinus ; G-arganus, Gaetulus, Gramcus ; 
Heliogabalus, Henricus. Heraclldes, Heraclitus, Hipponax. Hispanus ; Irene ; 
Latona, Leucata, Lugdunum, Ly coins ; Mandaue, Mausolus, Maximums, 
Meleager, Messala, Messana, Miletus ; Nasica, Nicanor, Nicetas ; Pachynus, 
Pandora, Peloris & -us, Pharsalus, Phcenice, Polites, Polycletus, Polymces, 
Priapus ; Sardanapalus, Sarpedon, Serapis, Sinope, Stratonice, Suffetes; 
Tigranes, Thessalonica ; Verona, Veronica. 

2. The following are short: Amathus. Am phipolis, Anabasis, An ticyr a, 
Antigonus, & -ne, Antilochus. Antiochus, Antiopa, Antipas, Antipater, An- 
tiphaues. Antiphates, Antiphila, Antiphon, Anytus, Apulus, Areopagus 
Ariminum, Armenus, Athesis, Attalus, Attica ; Biturix, Bructeri ; Calaber 
Callicrates. Callistratus, Candace, Cantaber. Carneades, Cherilus, Chrysos- 
tomus. Cleombrotus Cleomenes. Cory cos. Constantinop51is. Craterus, Cra- 
tylus. Cremeva. Crustumeri, Cybele/Cyclades. Cyzicus ; Dalmata, Damo- 
cles, Dardanus, Dejoces, Dejotarus, Democntus, Demipho, Didymus, Dio- 



312 PROSODY.— QUANTITY. § 160 

genes, Drepanum. Dumnorix ; Empedocles, Ephesus, Evergefces, Eumenes, 
Eurymedon, Eurip5 r lus ; Fucinus ; Geryones, Gyarus ; Hecyra, Helipolis, 
Hermione, Herodotus, Hesiodus, Hesione, Hrppocrates, Hippotamos, Ky- 
pata, Hypanis ; Icarus, Icetas, Illyris, Iphitus, Ismarus, Ithaca ; Laodice, 
Laoniedon, Lampsacus, Lamyrus, Lapithae, Lucretilis, Libanus, Lipare, or 
-a, Lysimachus, Longimanus ; Marathon, Msenalus, Marmarica, Massagetae, 
Matrona, Megara, Melitus, do -ta, Metropolis, Mutina, Miconus ; Neocles, 
Neritos, ISToiicum ; Omphale ; Patara, Pegasus, Pharnaces, Pisistratus, 
Polydamus ; Polyxena, Porsena, or Porsenna, Praxiteles, Puteoli, Pylade3, 
Pythagoras ; Sarmatae, Sarsma, Semele, Semiramis, Sequani, & -a, Sisy- 
phus, Sicoris, Socrates, Sodoma, Sotades, Spartacus, Sporades, Strongyle, 
Stymphalus, Sybaris ; Taygetus, Telegonus, Telemachus, Tenedos, Tarraco, 
Theophanes, Theophllus, Tomyris ; Urbicus ; Veneti, Vologesus, Volusus; 
Xeno crates ; Zoilus, Zopyrus. 

3. The penult of several words is doubtful ; thus, Batdvi. Lucan. Ba- 
tdvi. Juv. and Mart. Fortuities. Hon. Fortuitus. Martial. Some make 
fortuitus of three syllables, but it may be shortened like gratuities. Stat. 
Patrimus, matrimus, prcestolor, <fec., are by some lengthened, and by some 
shortened ; but for their quantity there is no certain authority. 



§ 160. FINAL SYLLABLES. 
A final. 

818. — Rule XV. ^ in the end of a word, declined by cases, 
is short; as, Musa, templet. &c. 

Exc. 1. The ablative of the first declension is long ; as, Musa, <fcc. 

Exc. 2. The vocative of Greek nouns in as, is long ; as, JEnea, 
Palla. 

819. — Rule XVI. A, in the end of a word not declined by 
cases, is long ; as, ama, frustrd, ergd, intra, &c. 

820. — Exc. ltd, quia, ejd, posted, putd (adv.), are short; sometimes, 
also, the prepositions, contra and ultra; and the compounds of ginta, as 
triginta, &c. But, contra and ultra, as adverbs, are always long. 

E final. 
821. — Rule XVII. E in the end of a word is short; as, 

nate, sedlle, ipse, posse, nempe, ante. 

822. — Special Rules and Exceptions. 

Rule 1. Monosyllables in e are long ; as, me, te, se. 
Exc. The enclitics que, ve, ne, are short ; also, pte, ce, t&. 
Rule 2. Nouns of the first and fifth declensions have final 
e long ; as, Calliope, Anchise, die, &c. 

Also Greek neuter plurals ; as, Cete, mete, Teinpe, &G. 



g 160 PROSODY. — QUANTITY. 313 

Rule 3. Verbs of the second conjugation have e long in the 
second person singular of the imperative active ; as, doce, 
mane, &c. But cave, vale, and vide, are sometimes short. 

Rule 4. Adverbs, from adjectives of the first and second 
declensions, have final e long ; as, placide, pulchre, valde (con 
tracted for valide). So, also, ferme, fere, and ohe. 

Exc. But, bene, male, inferne, and superne, are short. 

I final. 

823. — Rule XVIII. / final is long ; as, dorninl, fill, &a 

Exc. 1. /final is common in mihi, tibi, sibi ; also in ibi, ubi, nisi, quasi. 
Sometimes uti, and cui as a dissyllable, have i short Sicuti, sicubi, and 
necubi, are always short 

Exc. 2. / final is short in Greek vocatives and datives ; as, Alexia, Daph- 
ni ; Palladi, Troasi, and Troasin. 

O final, 

824. — Rule XIX. final is common ; as, Virgo, dmo, 
quando. 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long; as, 0, do, sto, pro. 

Exc. 2. The dative and ablative in o are long ; as, libro, 
domino. Also Greek nouns in o ; as, Dido, Sappho. 

Exc. 3. Ablatives used as adverbs have o long ; as, certo, /also, paulo ; 
quo, ed, and their compounds ; illo, idcirco, citro, retro, ultro, ergo (for the 
sake of). 

Exc. 4. Ego, scio, the defective verb cedo ; also homo, cito, illico, immo, 
duo, ambo, modo, and its compounds; quomodo, dummodb, postmodo, are 
almost always short. 

Exc. 5. In Virgil, the gerund in do is long ; in other poets, mostly short 

U, and Y, final. 

825. — Rule XX. U final is long; Y final is short ; as, vultu, 
Moly. 

B, D, L, M, R, T, final 

826.— Rule XXI. B, D, L, R, and T, in the end of a word, 

are short ; as, ab, apud, semel, consul, pater, caput. 

827. — EXPLANATION.— This rule does not apply, if any of these final 
letters are preceded by a diphthong, or if the syllable is contracted, or made 
oy position : as, aut, obit for abiit, amamt. 

14 



314 PKOSODY. — QUANTITY. § 160 

828.— EXCEPTIONS. 

Exc. 1. Sal, sol, and nil are long. 

Exc. 2. Aer and cether, have the final syllable 1ol£. Also nouns in er 
which have eris in the genitive ; as, Crater, Iber, <fcc. 

Exc. 3. Far, lar, Nar, par, cur, and fur, are long. 

Exc. 4. The Hebrew names Job, Daniel, are long ; but David and Bogud 
are common. 

829. — 06s. if final anciently made the preceding vowel short; as, 
Militum octo. By later poets it is usually cut of, by Echthlipsis (§- 166- 
2.), when the next word begins with a vowel. When not so cut off, it is 
short. 

C, N, final. 

830. — Bule XXII. C and N in the end of a word are long ; 
as, ac, sic, illuc, en, nan, &c. 

Exc. 1. iVec and donee are short; hie and/ac, common. 
Exc. 2. Forsildn, in, forsan, tamen, an, viden, are short. 

Exc. 3. En having mis in the genitive is short; as, carmen, carminis. 
Also Greek nouns in an, on, in, yn, originally short, and the dative plural 
in sin, have the final syllable short; as, Ilion, Eration, Maian, Alexin, 
chelyn, Troasin, <fcc. 

As, Es, Os, final. 

831. — Eule XXIII. As, es, os, in the end of a word are' 
long ; as, mas, quies, bonds. 

Exc. 1. As is short in anas, and Greek nouns which have adis or ados 
in the genitive ; as, Areas, lampds, <fcc. 

Exc. 2. Es is short, 1st, in nouns and adjectives which increase short in 
the genitive ; as, hospes, limes, hebes. But Ceres, paries, aries, abies, and 
pes, with its compounds, are long. 2d. Es from sum, and penes are short. 
3d. Greek neuters in es, and nomioatives and vocatives of the third declen- 
sion which increase in the genitive otherwise than in eos, have es short ; as 
Arcades, 7 roes. <£c. . ' 

Exc. 3. Os is short in compos, impos, os (ossis), — in Greek words of the 
second declension, and in neuters and genitives of the third ; as, Ilios, Ty- 
ros, chaos, epos, Palladbs, &c. 

Is, Us, Ys, final. 

832. — Rule XXIV. Is, us, and ys, in the end of a word are 
short ; as, Turris, legis, legimus, Capys. 

Exc. 1. Plural cases in is and us are long; but the dative 
and ablative in bus are short. 

Exc. 2. Ivouns in is with the genitive in Itis, mis, or entis are long ; as, 
Samnis, Salamls, Simols. 

Exc. 3. Is is long in glls, vis, gratis, /oris. And in the second perso» 



§161 



PROSODY. — QUANTITY. 



315 



singular, present indicative, active, of the fourth conjugation ; as, audit. 
Also in fls, Is, sis, vis, veils, and their compounds poss.s. quamvls, malls, 
jiolls, d:c. 

Exc. 4. Monosyllables in us are long ; as, grus, sus, &c. 

Also those -which have uris, udis, utis, untis, or odis, in the genitive ; as 
tell us, incus, virtus, Amathus, tripus. To these add Greek genitives in 
us ; as, Didus, Sapphus, <fcc. 

Exc. 5. Tethys is sometimes long, likewise nouns in ys, which have also 
yn in the nominative ; as, Phorcys or Phorcyn. 



§ 161. QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES AND COM- 
POUNDS. 

833. — Rule XXV. Derivatives follow the quantity of their 
primitives ; as, 



Amicus, from 


amo. 


Decoro, 




from decus, -oris. 


Auctionor, 


auctio, -on is. 


Exulo, 






exul, -ulis 


Auctoro, 


auctor, -oris. 


Pavidus, 






paveo. 


Auditor, 


auditum. 


Quirito, 






Quiris, -Iti? 


Auspicor, 


auspex, -icis. 


Radicitus, 






radix, -icis. 


Cauponor, 


caupo, -onis. 


Sospito, 






sospes, -Itis 


Competitor, 


competitum. 


datura, 






natus. 


Cornicor, 


comix, -icis. 


Matemus, 






mater. 


Custodio, 


custos, -odis. 


Legebam, 


etc. 




lego. 


Decorus, 


decor, -oris. 


Legeram, 


<fec. 




legi. 



Deni, from decern. 
Fomes, foveo. 
Hum anus, homo. 
Regula, rego. 



834.— EXCEPTIONS. 
1. Long from Short. 



Sedes, 
Secius, 
Penuria, 



sedeo. 
secus. 
penus. 



Mobilis, from moveo. 
Humor, hum us. 

Jumentum, jiivo. 
Vox, vocis, voco, cfec. 



2. Short from Long. 

Arena and arista, from areo. Liicerna, from luceo. 

Nota and noto, notus. Dux, -iicis, duco. 

Vadum, vado. Stabilis, stabam. 

Fides, fido. Ditio, dis, dltis. 

Sopor, sopio. Quasillus, qualus, etc. 

835. — EXPLANATION.— This rule applies to all those parts of the 
verb derived or formed from the primary parts, §§ 51 and 52, i. e. the quan- 
tity of the primary part remains in all the parts formed from it. 

836. — Rule XXVI. Compounds follow the quantity of the 
simple words which compose them ; as, 

adamo, from ad and amo ; deduco, from de and duco. • 



316 PROSODY.— QUANTITY. § 161 

837. — Obs. 1. The change of a vowel or diphthong, in forming the 
compound, does not alter its quantity; as, cado, concido ; ccedo, concido; 
claudo, recludo ; cequus, inlquus, <ke. 

838. — Obs. 2. When a short syllable in the first part of the compound 
ends with a consonant, it becomes long by position when joined to another 
word beginning with a consonant ; as, permaneo, from per and maneo ; but 
if the second word begin with a vowel, the first retains its quantity; as, 
perambulo, from per and ambulo. 

839. — Obs. 3. When the second part of a compound word begins with 
a vowel, the vowel ending the first part is short by Rule I. When it 
begins with two consonants, or a double consonant, the vowel preceding is 
long by Rule II. But if it begins with a simple consonant, followed by a 
vowel or diphthong, the vowel preceding is sometimes long, and some- 
times short, by the following — 

Special Hides for the first part of a compound, 
ending tvith a voivel. 

840. — Rule 1. The first part of a compound, if a preposi- 
tion of one syllable, has the final vowel long ; as, decido, pro- 
tendo. 

Exc. 1. Pro is short in procella, prof anus, profari, profecto, profestus, 
proficiscor, profiteor, profugio, profugus, profundus, pronepos, proneptis, 
propero, and protervus. It is common in procuro, prof undo, propago, pro- 
pello, proplno, propulso. 

Exc. 2. The Greek pro (before), is always short; as, propheta, prologus. 
Note. — The final vowel of a preposition of more than one syllable, re- 
tains its own quantity ; as, contrqdico, antecedo. 

841. — Rule 2. The inseparable prepositions, se and di, are 
long ; re is short ; as, Sepono, dlvello, repello. 

Exc. 3. Di is short in dirimo and disertus. Re is long in 
refert. 

842. — Rule 3. The first part of a compound, not a preposi- 
tion, has final a long ; e, i, o, u y and y, short ; as, 

Malo, nefas, biceps, pliilosophus, ducenti, Polydorus. 

843.— EXCEPTIONS. 

Exc. 1. A — In quasi, eadem, not in the ablative, and in some Greek com 
pounds, a is short. 

Exc. 2. E — The e is long in nemo, nequam, nequando, nequaquam,nequid- 
quam, nequis, nequitia ; memet, mecum, tecum, secum, vecors, vesanus, vene- 
ficus. Also in words compounded with se for sex, or semi ; as, sedecim, 
semestris, <fcc. E is common in some compounds of facio ; as, liquefacio^ 
patefaciOj rarefacio, cfec. 



§ 162 PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION. 317 

Exc. 3. I.— When the first part of a compound is declined, i is long; as, 
quidam, qullibet, relpublicce, (fcc, or when the first can be separated from 
the last, and yet both retain their form and meaniug ; as, tiidl-magister, 
lucrl-facio, sl-quis, ayil-cultura, <fcc. 

/ is sometimes made long by contraction ; as, bigce, scilicet, blmus, <fec, 
for bijugce, scire licet, bis annus, or blennius. It is also long in idem, (mas- 
culine), ublque, utroblque, ibidem, nlmirum, and the compounds of dies, 
such as, blduum, prldie ; merldies, etc. In ubicunque and ubivis, it is 
common. 

Exc. 4. — Contro, intro, retro, and quando, in compounds, have the 
final o long ; as, controversia, introduco, retrocedo, quandoque, (except quan 

iOqnklem.) 

is long in compounds of quo ; as, quomodo, quocunque, quominus, quo- 
circa, quOvis, quoque, (from quisque ;) but in quoque, the conjunction, it is 
short. 

Exc. 5. U — Jupiter, judex, and judicium, have u long; also usucapio and 
usuvenio, being capable of separation, as in Exc. 3. 

844. — Rule XXVII. The last syllable of every verse is 
common. 

845. — EXPLANATION.— This means that a short syllable at the end 
of a line, if the verse requires it, is considered long ; and a long syllable, if 
the verse requires it, is considered short. 

846. — N. B. A syllable which does not come under any of 
the preceding rules, is said to be long, or short, by " authority," 
viz. : of the poets. 

§ 162. VERSIFICATION. 
847. — A verse is a certain number of long and 
short syllables, disposed according to rule. The 
parts into which averse is divided are called Feet. 

FEET. 

848. — A foot, in metre, is composed of two or more syllables, strictly 
regulated by time, and is either simple or compound. The simple feet 
are twelve in number, of which four consist of two, and eight of three 
syllables. There are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables. These 
varieties are as follows : 

849. — Simple feet of two SyVxtbles. 

Pyrrhic w ^^ as Deiis. 

Spondee as fundunt. 

Iambus ^ — as erant. 

Trochee — ^ as arma. 



318 



PROSODY. — VERSIFICATION. 



§162 



850 —Simple feet of three Syllables. 



Tribrach 

Molossus 

Dactyl 

Anapaest 

Bacchius 

Antibacchius 

Amphibrach 

Aniphimacer 



as facere. 
as contendunt. 
as corpora, 
as dominl. 
as dolores. 
as Romanus. 
as honore. 
as charitas. 



851. — Compound feet of four Syllables. 



Choriambus 
Antispastus 
Ionic a majore 
Icn ; « a minore 
First Paeon 
Second Paeon 
Third Paeon 
Fourth Paeon 
First Epi trite 
Second Epi trite 
Third Epitrite 
Fourth Epitrite 
Proceleusmaticus 
Dispondee 
Diiambus • 

Ditrochee 



pontif Ices 
amabatis 
• calcaribus 
properabant 
temporibus 
potentia 
animatus 
celeritas 
voluptates 
conditores 
discordias 
adduxistis 
hominibus 
orator es 
amaverant 
Cantilena 



Trochee and Iambus. 
Iambus and Trochee. 
Spondee and Pyrrhic. 
Pyrrhic and Spondee. 
Trochee and Pyrrhic. 
Iambus and Pyrrhic. 
Pyrrhic and Trochee. 
Pyrrhic and Iambus. 
Iambus and Spondee. 
Trochee and Spondee. 
Spondee and Iambus. 
Spondee and Trochee. 
Two Pyrrhics. 
Two Spondees. 
Two Iambi. 
Two Trochees. 



852.— ISOCHRONOUS FEET. 



1. In every foot, a long syllable is equal in time to two short ones. To 
constitute feet Isochronous, two things are necessary : 1st. That they have 
the same time : 2d. That they be interchangeable in metre. 

2. Feet have the same time which are measured by an equal number 
of short syllables ; thus, the Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, and Proceleus- 
maticus, have the same time, each being equal to .four short syllables. 

3. Feet are interchangeable in metre, when the ictus or stress of the 
voice falls, or may fall, on the same portion of the foot. The part of the 
foot that receives the ictus, is called arsis, or elevation ; the rest of the 
foot is termed thesis, or depression. 

4. The natural place of the arsis, is the long syllable of the foot. Hence, 
in the Iambus, it fails on the second syllable, and in the Trochee, on the 
first. Its place in the Spondee and Tribrach cannot be determined by the 
feet themselves, each syllable being of the same length. 

5. In all kinds of verse, the fundamental foot determines the place of 
the arsis for the other feet admitted into it ; thus, in Dactylic verse, and 
Trochaic verse, the Spondee will have the arsis on the first syllable ; — in 
Anapaestic and Iambic, on the last. In Trochaic verse, the tribrach will 
have the arsis on the first syllable, s_/^ w, in Iambic on the second. 



§163 



PROSODY. — METRE. 319 



6. Those feet, then, accordiDg to the ancients, were called isochronous^ 
which were capable of being divided into parts that were equal in time, 
so that a short syllable should correspond to a short ; and a long to a 
long, or to two short ; thus, in Iambic aud Trochaic verse. 

Iambus ^ — Trochee — 



Tribrach v 
In Dactylic and Anapaestic ; thus, 
Dactyl — 

Spondee - 



Tribrach w w 

Anapaest ^ ^ 
Spondee — 



853. — But feet which cannot be divided in this manner, are not iso- 
chronous, though they have the same time ; thus, the Iambus and Trochee, 
though equal in time, cannot be divided so as to have the corresponding 
parts of equal length ; thus, 

Iambus, ^ 
Trochee, — 

854. — Hence these feet are not interchangeable, or isochronous ; and 
for this reason a Trochee is never admitted into Iambic verse nor an 

Iambus into Trochaic. The same is true of the Spondee, ( ) and 

Amphibrach ( ^ — ^ ), and of the Amphibrach with the Dactyl or 
Anapaest 



855.— § 163. OF METRE. 

1. Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of syllables and 
feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and, in this sense, applies, not 
only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse, or to any number of verses. 
A metre, in a specific sense, means a combination of two feet (sometimes 
called a syzygy), and sometimes one foot only. 

The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former refers 
to the time only, in regard tc which, two short syllables are equivalent to 
one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the order of the syllables. 
The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the 'same; the metre different. 
The term rhythm, is also understood in a more comprehensive sense, and 
is applied to the harmonious construction and enunciation of feet and words 
in connection ; thus, a line has rhythm when it contains any number of 
metres of equal time, without regard to their order. Metre requires a 
certain number of metres, and these arranged in a certain oi der. Thus, 
in this line, 

Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 

there is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in respect 
of time) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the canor 



320 PROSODY.— METRE. § 163 

for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyl in the fifth, and a 
spondee in the sixth place. Change the order thus, 

Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 

and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is destroyed ; 
it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 

2. The principal metres used in Latin poetry are six ; namely 1. Iambic, 
2. Trochaic. 3. Anapaestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Ionic. These arc 
so called from the foot which prevails in them. 

These different kinds of verse, in certain varieties, are also designated 
by the names of certain poets, who either invented them, or made special 
use of them in their writings. Thus, we have Asclepiadic, Glyconian, 
Alcaic, Sapphic, Pherecratian, <fec, from Asclepiades, Glycon, Alcaeus, 
Sappho, Pherecrates, <fcc. 

3. In Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verse, a metre consists of two 
feet (sometimes called a dipodia, or syzygy), in the other kinds, of one foot. 

4. A verse consisting of one metre is called Monometer ; of two metres, 
Dimeter ; of three, Trimeter ; of four, Tetrameter ; of five, Pentameter; 
of six, Hexameter ; of seven, Heptameter ; <fec. Hence, in Trochaic, Iambic, 
and Anapaestic verse, a monometer will contain two feet; a dimeter, four ; 
a trimeter, six ; &c. In the other kinds of verse, a monometer contains 
one foot ; a dimeter, two ; a trimeter, three ; (fee. 

5. A verse or line of any metre may be complete, having precisely the 
number of feet or syllables that the canon requires ; or, it may be defi- 
cient ; or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse is variously 
characterized as follows ; viz : 

(1.) Acatalectic, when complete. 
(2.) Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 
(3.) Br achy catalectic, if wanting two syllables, or a foot. 
(4.) Hyper catalectic, or hypermeter, when it has one or two syllables 
more than the verse requires. 

(5.) Acephalous, when a syllable is wanting at the beginning of the line. 
(6.) Asynartete, when different measures are conjoined in one line. 

Hence, in order fully to describe any verse, three terms are employed ; 
the first expressing the kind of verse ; the second, the number of metres ; 
and the third, the character of the line ; thus, 

Non vul- | tus in- || stantis | tyran- 1] ni | 
is described; as, Iambic, dimeter, hyper catalectic. 

6. Verses, or parts of verses, are further designated by a term expres- 
sive of the number of feet, or parts of feet, which they ccntain. Thus, 
a line, or a part of a line, containing — 

three half feet is called trimhner, 
five half feet, " penthemimer, 

seven half feet, " hephthemimer. 

These are of use to point out the place of — 



§ 164 PROSODY. — METRE. 321 

THE CiESURAL PAUSE. 

856. — Ccesura, in metre, is the separation, by the ending of a word, 
of syllables rhythmically or metrically connected. 

It is of three kinds, 1. Of the foot; 2. of the rhythm; 3. of the verse. 

1st. Caesura of the foot occurs when a word ends before a foot is com- 
pleted ; as in the second, third, fourth, and fifth feet of the following line : 

Silves- | trem tenu- | I Mu- | sam medi- [ taris a- | vena. 

2d. Caesura of the rhythm is the separation of the arsis from the thesis 
by the ending of a word, as in the second, third, and fourth feet of the 
preceding line. 

This has sometimes the effect of making a final short syllable long, by 
the force of the ictus; as, 

Pecton- | bus inhi- | ans spi- | rantia | consulit | exta. 

Note. — This effect is not produced by the Caesura of the foot, nor of the 
verse, unless they happen to coincide with the caesura of the rhythm. 

3d. The Caesura of the verse is such a division of the line into two 
parts, as affords to the voice a pause or rest, at a proper or fixed place, 
without injuring the sense by pausing in the middle of a word. 

857. — The proper management of this pause is a great beauty in cer- 
tain kinds of verse, and shows the skill of the poet. In peDtameter verse, 
its place is fixed ; in hexameter and other metres, it is left to the poet. 
When it occurs at the end of the third half foot, it is called trimimeris 
of the fifth, penthemimeris ; — of the seventh, hephthe?nimer?s. 

858. — The situation of each foot in a verse is called its place. 



§ 164. DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 

The canons, or rules of the different kinds of metre used in Latin poetry, 
are the following : 

859.— 1. IAMBIC METRE. 

1. A pure iambic line consists of iambic feet only ; as, 

Phase- | bus II- || le quern | vide- J tis hos- | pites. || 
Here the single line marks the end of the foot ; the double 
line, the end of the metre ; and the Italic syllable, the caesural 
pause. 

2. A mixed iambic line admits a spondee into the first, 
third, and fifth places ; and again in all these a dactyl or an 
anapaest is sometimes admitted for a spondee, and a tribrach 
for the iambus. 

3. This verse occurs in all varieties of length, from the 
dimeter catalectic to the tetrameter. 

14* 



322 PROSODY. — METRE. § 164 

. 4. The caesura commonly takes place at the fifth half foot. 

5. Different varieties of this metre are denominated as 
follows : 

1st. Se?iaria?i, or Trimeter acatalectie, used in tragedy and comedy. 
2d. Archilochian, or Trimeter cataleetic. 
3d. Archilochian, or Dimeter hypermeter. 
4th. Anacreontic, or Dimeter cataleetic. 

5th. Galliambus, or Dimeter cataleetic, double ; i. e. two verses in on« 

line. 
6th. Hipponactic, or Tetrameter cataleetic. 
7th. Choliambus, or Trimeter Acatalectie. This is called, also, Scazon 

and Hipponactic trimeter, and has a spondee in the sixth place, 

and generally an iambus in the fifth. 
8th. Octonarius, or Tetrameter acatalectie, called also quadratics. 
9th. Acephalous, or Dimeter, wanting the first syllable of the first foot 

This may be resolved into Trochaic dimeter cataleetic. 

860.— II. TROCHAIC METRE. 

1. A pure trochaic line consists of trochees only. These, 
h wever, are but seldom used. An acephalous trochaic be- 
ci lies an iambic line ; and an Acephalous iambic becomes a 
tr chaic line. 

i. A mixed trochaic line admits a spondee, a dactyl, an 
anapaest, and sometimes a proceleusmatic in even places, i. e. 
in che 2d, 4th, 6th, &c. But in the odd places, a trochee, or a 
tri orach, and in the last place, a trochee only. 

3. This verse may be used in all varieties, from the Mono- 
meter hypercatalectic (two trochees and one syllable) to the 
tetrameter, or octonarius cataleetic. The varieties most used 
by the Latin poets, are, 

1st. The Trochaic tetrameter cataleetic, rarely pure : 

2d. The Sapphic, consisting of five feet, viz. : a trochee, a 
spondee, a dactyl, and two trockees. It has the csesural 
pause after the fifth half foot ; thus, 

Lite- | ger vi- | toe. || scele- | risque | purus. Hon. 

3d. The Phalcecian, or Phaleucian, consisting of five feet ; 
viz. : a spondee, a dactyl, and three trochees ; thus, 

rTon est yivere' | sed va- | lere | vita. Majrt. 
This verse neither requires nor rejects a caesura. 
4th. The Trochaic dimeter cataleetic, or Acephalous iambic 
dimeter. See I. 9th. 



§ 164 POSODY. — METRE. 323 

6th. Oth ef varieties, but seldom used, are : 1. The Pancratic, mono- 
meter hypercatalectic. 2. The Ithyphalic, dimeter brachycatalectic. 
3. The Euripidean, dimeter catalectic. 4. The Alcmanic, dimeter 
acatalectic. 5. Anacreo?itic, dimeter acatalectic, with a pyrrhic ic 
the first place. 6. The Hippo?iactic, tetrameter acatalectic. 

861.— III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. 

1. A pure Anapaestic line consists of Anapaests only. 

2. The mixed anapaestic line has a spondee or a dactyl, feet of equal 
length, in any place. 

3. The following varieties occur, viz. : 1st. The Anapaestic Mbnometer, 
consisting of two anapaests. 2d. The Anapcestic dimeter, consisting of four 
Anapaests. • 

Obs. Anapaestic verses are usually so constructed, that each measure 
ends with a word, so that they may be read in lines of one, two, or more 
measures. 

4. Other varieties not much in use are the Simodian ; monometer cata- 
lectic. The Partheniac ; dimeter catalectic. The Archebulian; trimeter 
brachycatalectic. 

862.— IV. DACTYLIC METRE. 
1. A pure dactylic verse consists of dactyls only, which 
have the arsis on the first syllable of the foot. 

Of this verse, one foot constitutes a metre, and the lines range in length 
from dimeter to hexameter. Of these, the most important are — 

1. Hexameter or Heroic verse. 

Hexameter or Heroic verse consists of six feet, of which 
the fifth is a dactyl, the sixth a spondee, and each of the other 
four, a dactyl or a spondee ; as, 

Ludere | quae vei- | lem cala- | mo per- | misit a- | gresti. Verg. 

Respecting this verse the following things may be noticed. 

1st. When a spondee occurs in the fifth place, the line is called spondaic. 
Such lines are of a grave character, and but rarely occur. 

2d. When the line consists of dactyls, the movement is brisk and rapid, 
when of spondees, slow and heavy. Compare in this respect the two fol- 
lowing lines : the first expresses the rapid movement over the plain, of a 
troop of horse eager for the combat; — the other describes the slow and 
toilsome movements of the Cyclops at the labors of the forge. 
Quadrupe- | dante pu- | trem soni- ( tu quatit | ungiila | campum. 
Illi in- | ter se- | se mag- | na vi | brachia | tollunt. Virg. 

3d. The beauty and harmony of a Hexameter verse de- 
pends on the proper management of the caesura. The most 
approved caesural pause, in heroic poetry, is that which occurs 
after the arsis of the third foot. Sometimes called the heroic 
oaesural pause ; thus, 

At domus [ interi- | or \ rg- | gall | splendida ] luxu. Virg. 



324 PROSODY.— METRE. § 164 

In reading this line with due attention to quantity, we naturally pause 
where the caesura! pause is indicated by the double line, and the whole 
movement is graceful and pleasing. Compare now with this, a line in 
which no attention is paid to the caesura, or in which, if one is made, you 
have to pause in the middle of a word, and the difference is manifest. 

Roma | moenia | ter- || ruit | impiger | Hannibal | armls. 

Sometimes the caesura falls after the thesis of the third foot, or the arsis 
of the fourth. In the last case, a secondary one often occurs in the second 
foot. The pause at the end of the third foot was the least approved 
The following lines are examples of each of these : 

1. Infan- | dum re- | gina J jii- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. 

2. Prima te- | net, || plati- | suque vo- | lat || fremi- | tuque se- | cundo. 

3. Cui non | dictiis Hy- | las puer || et La> | toma | Delos. 

2. A species of Hexameter is the Priapean. It is divisible 
into two portions of three feet each, of which portions, the 
first begins generally with a trochee, and ends with an amphi- 
macer, and the second begins with a trochee ; as follows, 

O co- | Ionia | quae ciipis || ponte | hidere | longo. Catull. 

These parts, however, may very well be scanned, the first as a Olyconic, 
and the second, as a Pherecratic verse, of which see under (V) Choriambic 
verse. 

3. Pentameter verse consists of five feet. It is commonly 
arranged in two portions or hemistichs, of which the first 
contains two feet, dactyls or spondees, followed by a long syl- 
lable which ought to end a word ; and the second, two dactyls 
followed by a long syllable ; thus, 

Maxima | de mhi- | 16 || nascitiir | historl- | a — Propert. 
Pomaque | non no- | tis || legit ab | arbori- | bus | Tibull. 

Where the first distich does not end a word, or, if there be an elision by 
Synalcepha or Pchthlipsis, the verse is considered harsh. 

This verse is commonly used alternately with a hexameter line, a 
combination which is commonly called Elegiac verse. 

4. Dactylic tetrameter, of which there are two kinds. 

1st. Dactylic tetrameter a prior e, called also Alcmanian dac- 
tylic tetrameter, which consists of the first four feet of 8 
hexameter line, the fouith being always a dactyl; as, 
Solvitur | acris hy- | ems gra- | ta vice. Hor. 

2d. Dactylic tetrameter a poster lore, called also Spondaic 
tetrameter, which consists of the last four feet of a hexameter 
line ; as, 

Sic trls- | tea af- | fetus a- | micos. Hor. 



§ 164 PROSODY. — METKE. 825 

5. Dactylic trimeter (or Choriambic Trimeter Catalectic), con- 
sists of the last three feet of a hexameter line (See Choriambic 
verse) ; as. 

Grate | Pyrrha sub | antra Hoe. 

6. Dactylic trimeter catalectic, also called Archilochian pen- 
themirueris, consists of the first five half feet of a hexameter 
line ; as, 

Arbori- | busque co-| mse. Hon. 

7. Dactylic dimeter or Adonic — commonly used to conclude 
a Sapphic Stanza — consists of a dactyl and spondee ; thus, 

Rislt A- | polio. 

863.— V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. 

In Choriambic verse, the leading foot is a choriambus; but 
in the varieties of this metre, different other feet are admitted, 
chiefly at the beginning or end of the line, or both. The 
principal varieties are the following : 

1. The Choriambic tetrameter consists of a spondee, three 
choriambi, and an iambus ; as, 

Tu ne | quaesieris | scire nef as | quern mihi quern | tibL 

2. Choriambic tetrameter, consists of three choriambi, or 
feet equivalent in length, and a Bacchius ; as, 

.Jane pater | Jane tuens | dive biceps | biformis. 

Horace altered without improving this metre, by substituting a spondee 
for the iambus in the first foot ; as, 

Te deos 6- | ro Sybarin | <fec. 

Note. — Choriambic tetrameter was originally called Phalaecian, from 
Phalsecus, who made great use of it. 

3. Asclepiadic tetrameter, consists of a spondee, two cho- 
riambi, and an iambus ; thus, 

Maece- | nas atavis || edite re- | gibus. Hoe. 

This form is uniformly used by Horace. Other poets sometimes make 
the first foot a dactyl. 

The csesural pause occurs at the end of the first choriambus. 

This verse is sometimes scanned as a Dactylic pentameter catalectic ; 
thus, 

Msece- | nas ata- | vis | edite | regibus. 

4. Choriambic trimeter, or Glyconic, consists of a spondee, 
(sometimes an iambus or trochee,) a choriambus, and an iam- 
bus; as, 

Sic te | diva potens | Cypri. Hob. 



326 PROSODY. — METRE. § 165 

When the first foot is a spondee, it may be scanned as dactylic trimeter ; 
as, 

Sic te | diva po- | tens Cypri. 

5. Choriambic trimeter catalectic, or Pherecratic, consists of 
a spondee, choriambus, and a catalectic syllable ; as, 

Grato | Pyrrha sub an- | tro. 
Here, also, the first foot is sometimes a trochee or an iambus. When a 
spondee, it may be scanned as Dactylic trimeter. See IV. 5. 

6. Choriambic dimeter, consists of a choriambus and a Bac- 
cliius ; as, 

Lydia die | per omnes. Hon. 

864.— VI IONIC METRE. 

1. The Ionic a majore, or Sotadic metre, consists of three 
Ionics a majore, and a spondee ; as, 

Has cum gemi- | na compede | dedicat ca- | tenas. 
Obs. — In this metre, an Ionic foot is often changed for a ditrochee, as in 
the third foot of the preceding line ; and a long syllable is often resolved 
into two short ones. 

2. The Ionic a minore, consists generally of three or four 
feet, which are all Ionics a minore ; as, 

Piier ales | tibi tells | operosse- | que Minervce. Hoe. 



§ 165. COMPOUND METRES. 

865. — A compound metre or Asynartete, is the union of 
two kinds of metre in the same verse or line. Of these the 
following are the chief: 
1. Greater Alcaic. Iambic mon. hyper. + Chor. dim. acat. 



Thus, w — | w — | - 

2. Lesser Alcaic. Dactylic dim. + Trochaic mon. 
Thus, _^^|--^^||_^-w 

3. Archilochian Hept. or Dact. tetr. a priore + Troch. dim. B. C. 



Thus, — w^|— ^_|___|___||__^ 

4. Dactylico-Iambic. Dactylic trim. cat. + Iambic dim. 

Thus, — w w J — ^w|— . || w w I — ^ | ^ — . I w - 

5. lambico Dactylic. Iambic dim. -f Dactylic trim. cat. 



§ 166 PROSODY.— METRE. 327 

§ 166. SCANNING. 

866 — Scanning is the measuring of verse, or the resolving of a line 
into the several feet of which it is composed. 

To do this properly, a previous acquaintance with the rules of quantity, 
and the structure of each kind of verse, is indispensable, — and also with 
the various ways by which syllables in certain situations are varied by 
contraction, elision, <i:c. These are usually called Figures of Prosody, 
and are as follows : 

867.— FIGURES OF PROSODY. 

1. Synaloepha, cuts off a vowel or diphthong from the end 
of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, or h with 
a vowel following it, thus converting two syllables into one ; 
as, 

Terra antlqua by Synaloepha, terr* antiqua ; Dardanidce infensi, Dar- 
danid* infensi; vento hue, ve?tf uc ; thus: 

Quid^e moror ? si omnes uno or dine habetis Achivos. Virg. 
Scanned thus, 
Quidve mo- ] ror ? s' 6m- 1 nes u- | n' or din' ha- | betis A- | chivos. 
The Synaloepha is sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place in the 
interjections, 0, heu, ah, proh> vce, vah, hei. 

Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off, are sometimes shortened ; 
as, 

Insula? | Ion!' | In mag- | no quas | dira Ce- | Iseno. Virg. 
Credimus | an qui a- | mant Ip- | si sibi | somnia | f ingunt. Id. 

2. JEcthlipsis cuts off m with a vowel preceding it, from 
the end of a word, when the next word begins with a vowel, 
or h followed by a vowel ; as, 

Monstrum horrendum, inform e, ingens, cui lumen ademptum. 

Scanned thus, 

Monstr' hor- | rend,' in- | form,' in- | gens cui | lumen ad- | emptum. 

This elision was sometimes omitted by the early poets ; as, 

Corporum | offici- | um est quoni- | am preme- | re omnia de- | or sum. 

Lucr. 

Ob-i. A Syralcepha and Ecthlipsis are sometimes found at the end of a 
line, where, after the completing of the metre, a syllable remains to be 
joined to the next hue, which of course must begin with a vowel ; thus, 

Sternitur | infe- | lix ah- [ one ( vulnere | coelum | que 

Adspicit, d:c. 
Here the que and adspicit are joined ; as, qu! adspicit. 

Jamque iter | emen- | si, tur- | res ac | tecta La- | tino- || rum 
Ardua, etc., where the -rum and ardua are joined ; as, r' ardua. 

3. Synceresis, sometimes called Crasis, contracts two sylla- 
bles into one ; as, Phcetho?i, for Phaethon ; this is done by 



328 PROSODY. — METRE. § 167 

forming two vowels into a diphthong; a'e, e'i, o'i, into ce, ei, oi ; 
or, pionouncing the two syllables as one ; thus, ea, iu, as if ya, 
yu, &c. ; as, aurea, aurya ; films, filyus ; and ua, ui, &c, as 
if wa, wi ; thus, genua, genwa; tenuis, tenwis. 

4. Diceresis divides one syllable into two ; as, auldi, for 
aulce ; Troice, for Trojce ; Perseus, for Perseus; miluus, for 
milvus ; solicit, for solvit ; voluit, for volvit ; aqicce, suetus, sua- 
sit, Suevos, relanguit, reliqiias, for aquce, suetus, &c. ; as, 

Aulai in medio libabant pocula Bacchi. Virg. 
Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. Tibullus. 

5. Systole makes a long syllable short ; as, the penult in 
tuler unt ; thus, 

Matri | longa de- | cem tule- | runt fas- | tidia | menses. Virg. 

6. Diastole makes a short syllable long ; as, the last sylla- 
ble of dw.or in the following verse : 

Consi- | dant, si- | tantus a- | mor, et | mosnia | condant. Yirg. 



§ 167. STANZA. 

868. — A poem may consist of one or more kinds of verse. When a 
poem consists of one kind of verse, it is called monocolon ; of two, dicolon ; 
of three, tricolon. 

869. — The different kinds of verse in a poem are usually combined in 
regular portions called stanzas, or strophes, each of which contains the 
same number of lines, the same kinds of verse, and these arranged in the 
same order. 

870. — When a stanza or strophe consists of two lines, the poem is 
called distrophon ; of three lines, tristrophon; of four, tetrastropliun. 
Hence poems, according to the number of kinds of verse which they con- 
tain, and the number of lines in the stanza, are characterized as follows : 

Monocolon, one kind of verse in the poem. 

Dicolon distrophon, two kinds of verse, and two lines in the stanza. 
Dicolon tristrophon, two kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 
Dicolon tetrastrophon, two kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 
Tricolon tristrophon, three kinds of verse, three lines in the stanza. 
Tricolon tetrastrophon, three kinds of verse, four lines in the stanza. 



§ 168. COMBINATIONS OF METRES IN HORACE. 

871. — Horace makes use of nineteen different species of metre com- 
bined in eighteen different ways. They are arranged as follows, according 
to the order of preference given them by the poet. The references here, 
where not marked, are to § 164. 



§169 PROSODY. — METRE. 329 

No. 1. Two lines Greater Alcaic. § 165. 1. One Archilochian dimeter 

bypermeter, I. 2. 5. 3d; and one Lesser Alcaic. § 165. 2. 
No. 2. Three lines Sapphic, IL 2. One Adonic, or Dactylic dim. IV. 7 
No. 3. One line Choriambic trim, or Gly conic, Y. 4. One choriambic 

tetram. or Asclepiadic. V. 3. 
No. 4. One line Iambic trim, or Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Iambic dim. 

I 2. 3. 
No. 5. Three lines, Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One Chor. trim 

.or Glyconic, V. 4. 
No. 6. Two lines Chor. tetram. or Asclepiadic, V. 3. One Chor. trim, 

cat, or Pherecratic, V. 5. One Chor. trim, or Glycomo, Y. •i. 
No. 7. Choriambic tetrameter, or Asclepiadic alone, Y. 3. 
No. 8. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Dactylic tetram. a 

posteriore, IY. 4. 2d. 
No. 9. Choriambic pentameter only, Y. 1. 
No. 10. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Iambic dim. 1. 2. 3. 
No. 11. Iambic trimeter Senarian only, 1. 2. 5. 1st. 

No. 1 2. One line Choriambic dim. Y. 6. One Chor. tetram. (altered) Y. 2. 
No. 13. One line Dactvlic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Iambic trim. sen. I. 3. 

5. 1st. 
No. 14. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Archilochian Dactylic 

trimeter cataleetic, IY. 6. 
No. 15. One line Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. One Iambi co dactylic, 

§ 165. 5. 
No. 16. One line Iambic trim. Senarian, I. 3. 5. 1st. One Dactylic Iam- 
bic. § 165, 4. 
No. 17. One line Archilochian Heptameter. § 165. 3. One Archilochian 

Iambic trimeter, Cataleetic, I. 2. 5. 2d. 
No. 18. One line Iambic dimeter Acephalous, L 5. 9th.; and one Iambic 

trimeter cataleetic, I 5. 2d. 
No. 19. Ionic a minore only, YI. 2. The first line contains three feet, 
the second, four. 
Note. — The Satires and Epistles are in Dactylic Hexameter, IY. 1. 



§ 169. METRICAL KEY TO ODES OE HORACE. 

872. — This key gives, in alphabetic order, the first words of each ode, 
with a reference to the Nos. in the preceding section where the stanza is 
described, and reference made to the place where each metre is explained. 

JEW vetusto No. 1 ! Bacchum in remotis . . . No. 1 

^Equam memento . . . . * ljBeatusille 4 

Albi ne doleas 5 ; Ccelo supinas 1 

Altera jam teritur 13 ! Ccelo tonantem 1 

Angustam amiei 1 j Cum tu Lydia 3 

At Deorum 4-jCur me querelis . . . . 1 

Audivere Lyce . . .» . . . . 6 jDelicta majorum } 



330 



PROSODY. — METRE. 



§169 



Descende ecelo . .... 1 

Dianam tenerae 6 

Diffugere nives 14 

Dive quern proles 2 

Divis orte bonis 5 

Donarem pateras 7 

Donee gratus eram . ... 3 

Eheu fugaces 1 

Est mini nonum 2 

Et thure et fidibus . ... 3 

Exegi monumentum 7 

Extremum Tanaim 5 

Eaune nympharum 2 

Festo quid potius die .... 3 

Hereulis ritu . . .... 2 

Horrida tempestas 15 

Ibis Liburnis 4 

leci bealis 1 

Ille et nefasto 1 

Impios parrae 2 

Inciusam Danaen 5 

Intactis opulentior 3 

Integer vitse 2 

Intennissa Venus diu .... 3 

Jam jam effieaci 11 

Jam pauca aratro 1 

Jam satis terris ...... 2 

Jam veris comites 5 

Justum et tenaeem ..... 1 

Laudabunt alii 8 

Lupis et agnis . . .... 4 

Lydia die per omnes .... 12 

Maecenas atavis 7 

Mala soluta 4 

Martiis coelebs 2 

Mater saeva Cupidinum ... 3 

Mercuri facunde 2 

Mercuri nam te 2 

Miserarum est ....... 19 

Mollis inertia 10 

Montium custos 2 

Motum ex Metello 1 

Musis amicus 1 

Natis in usum ....... 1 

ISTe forte credas 1 

Ne sit ancillae 2 

Nolis longa ferae 5 

Nondum subacta 1 

Non ebur neque aureum . . .18 

Non semper imbres 1 

Non usitata 1 

Non vides quanto 2 

Nox erat 10 

Nuiiam Vare sacra 



Nullus argento ....... 2 

Nunc est bibendum 1 

O crudelis adhuc 9 

Diva gratum . ... 1 

O fons Bland usiae ...... 6 

O matre pulchra ...... 1 

nata mecum 1 

navis referent 6 

saepe mecum 1 

Venus regina 2 

Odi profanum 1 

Otium Divos 2 

Parcius junctas 2 

Parcus Deorum 1 

Parentis olim 4 

Pastor quum traheret .... 5 

Persicos odi puer 2 

Petti nihil me 16 

Phoebe, silvarumque . . '. . . 2 

Phoebus volentem 1 

Pindarum quisquis 2 

Poseimur siquid 2 

Quae cura patrum 1 

Qualem ministrum 1 

Quando repostum 4 

Quantum distet ab Inacho . . 3 

Quern tu, Melpomene .... 3 

Quern virum aut heroa ... 2 

Quid bellicosus 1 

Quid dedieatum .... . 1 

Quid fles Asterie ... . . 6 

Quid immerentes 4 

Quid obseratis 11 

Quid tibi vis 8 

Quis desiderio 5 

Quis multa gracilis 6 

Quo me, Bacche 3 

Quo, quo scelesti ruitis ... 4 

Kectius vives 2 

Rogare longo ........ 4 

Scriberis Vario 5 

Septimi Gades 2 

Sic te Diva potens 3 

Solvitur acris hi ems .... 17 

Te maris et terras 8 

Tu ne quaesieris 9 

Tyrrhena regum 1 

Ulla si juris 2 

Uxor pauperis Ibyci 3 

Velox amcenum 1 

Vides ut alta 1 

Vile potabis k i 

Vitas hinnuleo .... . . 6 

\ ixi chore) 8 ...... 1 



331 
APPENDIX. 



1. ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME. 
1. Divisions of the Year. 

873. — Romulus is said to have divided the year into teu months, as 
follows; 1. Martins, from Mars, his supposed father; 2. Aprilis, from 
Aperio, "to open;" 3. Maius, from Mai a, the mother of Mercury; 4. Ju- 
nius, from the goddess Juno. The rest were named from their number, as 
follows: 5. Quintilis, afterwards Julius, from Julius Ccesar ; 6. Sextilis, 
afterwards Augustus, from Augustus Ccesar; 7. September ; 8. October; 
9. November; and 10. December. Nunia afterwards added two mouths; 
viz : 11. Januarius, from the god Janus ; 12. Februarius, from februo, u to 
purify." 

874. — As the months were regulated by the course of the moon, it 
was soon found that the months and seasons did not always correspond, 
and various expedients were adopted to correct this error. Much confu- 
sion however still remained till about A. U. 707, when Julius Caesar, assist- 
ed by Sosigenes, an astronomer of Alexandria, reformed the Calendar, 
adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to each 
of the twelve months the number of days which they still contain. 

2. The Roman Month. 

875. — The Romans divided their month into three parts, called Ka- 
lends, Nones, and Ides*. The first day of every month was called the 
Kalends; the fifth was called the Nones; and the thirteenth was en lied 
the Ides ; except in March, May, July, and October, when the Nones fell on 
the seventh, and the Ides on the fifteenth ; and the day was numbered ac- 
cording to its distance, (not after but) before eacli of these points ; that is, 
after the Kalends, they numbered the day according to its distance before 
the Nones ; after the Nones, according to its distance before the Ides ; 
and after the Ides, according to its distance before the Kalends — both 
days being always included. The day before each of these points was 
never numbered, but called Pridie, or ante diem Nonorum, or Iduum, 
or Kalendarum. as the case might be; the day before that was called 
iertio, the day before that, quarto, &c. ; scil. Nonorum, Iduum, Kalendarum. 

876. — Various expressions and constructions were used by the Romans 
in the notation of the days of the months. Thus, for example, the 29th 
December or the 4th of the Kalends of January, was expressed differently 
as follows : 

1st. Quarto Kalendarum Januarii. Abbreviated, IV. Kal. Jan., or 
2d. Quarto Kalendas Januarii. " IV. Kal. Jan., or 

* The first day was named Kalends, from the Greek, *aXr-oj, to call, because 
when the month was regulated according to the course of the moon, the priest 
announced the new moon, which was of course the first day of the month. 
The Nones were so called because that day was always the ninth from the 
Ides. The term Ides is derived from amobsolete Latin verb iduare, to divide, 
it is supposed, because that day being about the middle ^the month, divided 
it ir'o two nearly equal parts 



332 



APPENDIX. 



3d. Quarto Kalendas Januarias. Abbreviated. IV. Kal. Jan., or 
4th. Ante diem quartum Kal. Jan. " a. d. IV. K Jan. 

In these expressions, quarto agrees with die understood ; and die governs 
Kalenddrum in the genitive. Kalendas is governed by ante understood. 
In the first expression, Januarii is considered as a noun governed by Ka- 
Itndarum ; in the second, as a noun governed by Kalendas ; in the third, 
Januarias is regarded as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas; in the 
fourth, ante diem quartum is a technical phrase for die quarto ante, and 
frequently has a preposition before it ; as, in ante diem, <fcc, or, ex ante 
diem, <fec. 

The notation of Nones and Ides was expressed in the same way, and 
with the same variety of expression. 

The correspondence of the Roman notation of time with our own, may 
be seen by inspection of the following 

811.— TABLE. 



Days of 


Mar. Mai. 


Jan. Aug. 


Apr. Jun. 


Febr. 


our 


Jul. Oct. 


Dec. 


Sept. Nov, 


28 days. 


Months. 


31 days. , 


31 days. 


30 days. 


Bissex. 29. 


1 


Kalendas. 


Kalendas. 


Kalendas. 


Kalendas. 


2 


VI. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


IV. nonas. 


3 


V. 


III. " 


in. 


IIL 


4 


IV. " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


5 


III. " 


Nonas. 


Nonas. 


Nonas. 


6 


Pridie " 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


VIII. idus. 


1 


Nonas. 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VII. " 


8 


VIII. idus. 


VI. " 


VI. 


VI. 


9 


VII. " 


V. 


V. 


V. 


10 


VI. « 


IV. " 


IV. 


IV. 


11 


V. 


III. " 


III. 


III. 


12 


IV. " 


Pridie « 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 


13 


III. " 


Idus. 


Idus. 


Idus. 


14 


Pridie " 


XIX. kal. 


XVIII. kal. 


XVI. kal. 


15 


Idus. 


XVIII." 


XVII. " 


XV. " 


16 


XVII. kaL 


XVII. " 


XVI. « 


XIV. « 


17 


XVI " 


XV L « 


XV. " 


XIII. " 


18 


XV. « 


XV. " 


XIV. « 


XII. " 


19 


XIV. " 


XIV. ■ 


XIII. " 


XL 


20 


XIII. " 


XIII. " 


XII. " 


X. 


21 


XII. " 


XII. « 


XL 


IX. 


22 


XL " 


XL " 


X. 


VIII. « 


23 


X. 


X. 


IX. 


VII. " 


24 


IX. " 


IX. " 


VIII. " 


VI. 


25 


VIII. " 


VIII. " 


VII. " 


V. 


26 


VII. " 


VII. " 


VI. 


IV. 


27 


VI. " 


VI. " 


V. 


IIL 


28 


V. 


V. 


IV. 


Pridie Mar 


29 


IV. " 


IV. « 


IIL 




30 


IIL " 


IIL- " 


Pridie " 




31 


Pridie " 


Pridie " 







ROMAN COMPUTATION OF TIME. 333 

3. Rules for reducing Time. 

As, however, this table cannot be always at hand, the following simple 
rules will enable a person to reduce time without a table. 

L TO REDUCE ROMAN TIME TO OUR OWN. 

For reducing Kalends. 

878. — Kalendce are always the first day of the month : — Pridie Ka- 
lendarum, always the last day of the month preceding. For any other 
notation, observe the following — 

879. — Rule. Subtract the number of the Kalends given, 
from the number of days in the preceding month ; add 2, and 
the result will be the day of the preceding month ; thus, 

X. Kal. Jan.— Dec. has days 31— 10 = 21 + 2 = 23d of Dec'r. 
XVI Kal. Dec— Nov. has days 30— 16 = 14 + 2 = 16th of Nov'r. 

For reducing Nones and Ides. 

880. — Eule. Subtract the number given, from the number 
of the day on which the Nones or Ides fall, and add 1. The 
result will be the day of the month named ; thus, 

IV. Non. Dec. — Nones on the 5 — £ = 1 + 1 = 2, or 2d Dec'r. 
VI. Id. Dec— Ides on the 13—6 = 7 + 1 = 8, or 8th Dec'r. 
IV. Non. Mar.— Nones on the 7 — 4 = 3 + 1=4. or 4th March. 
VI. Id. Mar.— Ides on the 15—6 = 9 + 1 = 10, or 10th March. 

IL FOR REDUCING OUR TIME TO ROMAN. 

881. — If the day is that on which the Kalends, Nones, or Ides fall* 
call it by these names. If the day before, call it Pridie Kal. (of the fol- 
lowing month), Prid. Non., Pridie Id. (of the same month). Other days 
to be denominated according to their distance before the point next fol- 
lowing, viz. : those after the Kalends and before the Nones, to be called 
Nones ; those after the Nones and before the Ides, to be called Ides, viz.: 
of the month named ; and those after the Ides and before the Kalends, to 
be called Kalends, viz. : of the month following ; as follows : 

For reducing to Kalends. 

882. — Rule. Subtract the day of the month given, from 
the number of days in the month, and add 2. The result will 
be the number of the Kalends of the month following ; thus, 

Dee. 23d.— Dec. has days 31—23 = 8 + 2 = 10, or X. Kal. Jan. 
Nov. 16th.— Nov. has days 30—16 = 14 + 2 = 16, or XVI. Kal. Dec 

For reducing to Nones and Ides. 

883. — Rule. Subtract the day of the month given, from 
the day of the Nones (if between the Kalends and Nones), or 
from the day of the Ides (if betwee l the Nones and Ides), 



834 APPENDIX. 

and add 1. The result will be the number of the Nones or 
Ides respectively ; as, 

Dec. 2d.— Day of the Nones 5—2 = 3 + 1=4, or IV. Non. Dec 
Dec. 8th. " Ides 1 3—8 = 5 + 1 = 6, or VI. Id. Dec. 

March 4th. " Nones 1 — 4 = 3 + 1 =4, or IV. Non. Mar. 

March 10th. " Ides 15— 10 = 5 + 1 = 6, or VI, Id. Mar. 

Division of the Roman Day. 

884. — The Roman civil day extended, as with us, from midnight to 
midnight, and its parts were variously named ; as, media nox, gallicinium 
canticinium, diluculum, mane, antemerididnum, meridies, pomerididnum, <kc 

885. — The natural day extended from sunrise (solis ortus) till sunset 
(solis occdsus), and was divided into twelve equal parts, called hours, 
(horce) ; which were, of course, longer or shorter according to the length 
of the day. At the equinox, their hour and ours would be of the same 
length ; but, as they began to number at sunrise, the number would be 
different, i. e. their first hour would correspond to our 1 o'clock, their second 
to our 8 o'clock, <fcc. 

886. — The night was divided by the Romans into four watches (vigi- 
lias), each equal to three hours ; the first and second extending from sunset 
to midnight, and the third and fourth, from midnight to sunrise. 

II. OF ROMAN NAMES. 

887. — The Romans at first seem to have had but one name ; as, Ro m 
mulus, Remus, Numator ; sometimes two ; as, Numa Pompilius, Ancus 
Martius, (fee. ; but when they began to be divided into tribes, or clans, 
(gentes) they commonly had three names — the prcenomen, the nomen, and 
the cognomen ; arranged as follows : 

1. The Pramomen stood first, and distinguished the individual. It was 
commonly written with one or two letters ; as, A. for Aulus; C. for Caius ; 
Cn. for Cneius, &c. 

2. The Nomen, which distinguished the gens. This name commonly 
ended in ius ; as, Cornelius, Fabius, Tullius, <fcc ; and 

3. The Cognomen, or surname, was put last, and marked the family ; as, 
Cicero, Caesar, &c. 

Thus, in Publius Cornelius Scipio, Publius is the pranomen, and de- 
notes the individual ; Cornelius is the nomen, and denotes the gens ; and 
Scipio is the cognomen, and denotes the family. 

4. Sometimes a fourth name, called the Agnomen, was added, as a me- 
morial of some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus, Scipio was 
named Africdnus, from the conquest of Carthage in Africa. 

888. — The three names, however, were not always used — commonly 
two, and sometimes only one. In speaking to any one, the prcenomen was 
commonly used, which was peculiar to Roman citizens. 

889. — When there was only one daughter in a family, she was called 
by the name of the gens, with a feminine termination ; as, Tullia, the 
daughter of M. Tullius Cicero ; Julia, the daughter of C. Julius Ccesar. If 



DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 



335 



there were two, the elder was called Major, and the younger Minor ; as, 
Tullia Major, etc. If more than two, they were distinguished by nu- 
merals ; as, Prima, Sccunda, Tertia, &q. 

890. — Slaves had no prccnomen, but were anciently called by the prse- 
nomen of their masters ; as, Marcipor, as if Marci prier ; Lucipor (Lucii 
puer), &c. Afterwards they came to be named either from their country 
or from other circumstances ; as, Syrus, Davits, Geta, Tiro, Laurea ; and 
still more frequently from their employment ; as, Medici, Chir&rgi, Paida- 
gogi, Grammatici, Scrlbaz, Fabri, (fee. 

891. — The most common abbreviations of Latin names, are the fol- 
io winsr. viz. : 



A., Aldus. 
C, Caius. 
Cn., Cneius. 
D., Declmus. 
L., Lucius. 
M., Marcus. 



A. d., Ante diem. 

A. U., Anno Urbis. 

A. U. C, Anno urbis 
conditce. 

Cal , or kal., Kalendce. 

Cos., Consul. (Singu- 
lar.) 

Coss., Consules. (Plu- 
ral.) 

D., Dlvus. 

Eq. Rom., Eques Ro- 



M. T. C, Marcus Tullius Q., or Qu., Quintus. 



Cicero. 
M.', Manius. 
Mam., Mamercus. 
]$., Numerius. 
P., Publius. 

Other Abbreviations. 

Id., Idas. 

Imp., Tmperator. 

Non., Nonce. 

P. C, Patres conscripti. 

P. R, Populus Roma- 

nus. 
Pont. Max., Pontifex max- 

imus. 
Pr., Prcetor. 
Proc, Proconsul. 
Resp., Respublica. 



Ser., Servius. 

S., or Sex., Sextus. 

Sp., Spurius. 

T., Titus. 

Ti., or Tib., Tiberius. 



S., Salutem, Sacrum, 

Senatus. 
S. D. P., Salutem dl- 

cit plurimam. 
S. P. Q. R., Senates 

populusque Roma- 

nus. 
S. C, Senatus consul 

turn. 



III. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN PEOPLE. 
892. — The Roman people were originally divided as follows : 

1. Patres. Fathers, or Senators, called also patrones, from their relation 

to the plebeians, to whom they were the legal protectors. 

2. Plebes, or common people, called also clientes. 
There were afterwards added — 

3. Equites, or Knights, persons of merit and distinction, selected from 

the two orders, whose duty at first was to serve in war as cavalry, 
but they were afterwards advanced to other important offices. It 
was necessary for them to be over 18 years of age, and to possess 
a fortune of four hundred- thousand sesterces. 

4. Liberti, or Liber iini. Freedmeu — persons who had once been slaves, but 

obtained their freedom, and ranked as citizens. They were called 
liberti in relation to the person by whom they were set free, and 
libertlni in relation to all others. 

6. Servi. Slaves. 



S3 6 APPENDIX. 

893. — When Romulus arranged the affairs of the new city, he ap- 
pointed a council of 100 Patres from the Romans, and afterwards added 
to them 100 more from the Sabines. Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of 
Rome, added 100 more, called Patres minorum gentium, in relation to 
whom the former senators were called Patres majorum gentium, making 
300 in all. A great part of these were slain by Tarquin the proud ; and 
after his expulsion, Brutus, the first consul, chose a number to supply their 
place, who were called Patres conscripti, because they were enrolled with 
the other senators. This title was afterwards applied to all the senators 
in council assembled, and is supposed to be abbreviated for Patres et con- 
scripti. 

894. — The sons of the Patres were called Patricii, or Patricians. Be- 
sides these distinctions among the Romans, there were also distinctions of 
rank or party, as follows : 

A T oblles, whose ancestors or themselves held any curule office, i. e. had 
been Consul, Prwtor, Censor, or Curule uEdile. 

Ignobiles, who neither themselves, nor their ancestors, held any curule 

office. 
Optimates, those who favored the senate. 
Populares, those who favored the people. 

IV. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN CIVIL OFFICERS. 

895. — At first Rome was governed by kings for the space of 244 years. 
The ordinary magistrates after that, till the end of the republic, were, 

1. Consuls, or chief magistrates, of whom there were two. 

2. Prwtors, or judges, also two in number, next in dignity to the consuls, 

3. Censors, who took charge of the census, and had a general supervision 

of the morals of the people. 

4. Tribunes of the people, the special guardians of the people against 

the encroachments of the patricians, and who, by the word " Veto," 
I forbid, could prevent the passage of any law. 

5. jEdiles, who took care of the city and had the inspection and regula- 

tion of its public buildings, temples, theatres, baths, &e. 

6. Qucestors, or Treasurers, who collected the public revenues. 
896. — Under the emperors there were added, 

1. Prosfectus Urbi, or Urbis, Governor of the city. 

2. Prazfectus Prcetorii, Commander of the body guards. 

3. Prarfectus Annon^e, whose duty it was to procure and distribute grain 

in times of scarcity. 

4. Prazfectus militaris cerarii, who had charge of the military fund. 
9. Prazfectus Classis, Admiral of the fleet. 

$. Prcefectus Vigilum, or captain of the watch. 

V. THE ROMAN ARMY. 

897. — The Romans were a nation of warriors. All within a certain 
*ge (17 to 45), were obliged to go forth to war at the call of their country. 



ROMAN MONEY — WEIGHTS — AND MEASURES. 337 

When an army was wanted for any purpose, a levy was made among the 
people, of the number required. These were then arranged, officered, and 
equipped for service. 

898. — The Legion. The leading division of the Roman army was the 
legion, which when full consisted of 6000 men, but varied from that to 
4000. 

899. — Each legion was divided into ten cohorts; each cohort, into 
three maniples ; and each maniple, into two centuries. 

900. — The complement of cavalry (equitatus), for each legion was 
three hundred, called Ala, or Justus equitdtus. These were divided into 
ten turmce or troops ; and each turma into three decurice, or bodies of ten 
men. 

Division of the Soldiers. 
901. — The Roman soldiers were divided into three classes, viz: 

1. Hastati, or spearmen; young men who occupied the first line. 

2. Principes, or middle-aged men, who occupied the middle line. 

3. Triarii ; veterans of approved valor, who occupied the third line. 
Besides these, there were, 

4. Velltes, or light armed soldiers ; distinguished for agility and swift- 

ness. 
6. Funditores, or slingers. 
6. Sagittarii, or bowmen. 

902. — The Officers of the Legion were, 

1. Six Military tribunes, who commanded under the consul in turn, 

usually a month. 

2. The Centuriones, who commanded the centuries. 

. The Officers of the Cavalry were, 

1. The Prcefectus Ala, or commander of the wing. 

2. The Decuriones, or captains of ten. 

903. — The whole army was under the command of the consul or pro- 
consul, who acted as commander-in-chief. Under him were his Legati, or 
lieutenants, who acted in his absence, or under his direction ; or, as his 
deputies, were sent by him on embassies, or on business of special im- 
portance. 

VL ROMAN MONEY— WEIGHTS— AND MEASURES. 

Roman Money. 

904. — The principal coins among the Romans were — Brass : the As 
and its divisions ; Silver : Sestertius, Quinarius, and Denarius, called bi- 
gati and quadrigati, from the impression of a chariot drawn by two or 
four horses on one side; Gold: the Aureus or Solidus. 

905. — Before the coining of silver, the Romans reckoned by the As, a 
brass coin, called also libra. This coin was originally the weight of the 

15 



APPENDIX. 



Roman libra or pondus, but was afterwards reduced at different times, till 
at last it came to one twenty -fourth of a pound, and was called I i bell a. 
It was divided into twelve equal parts called Uncice, every number of 
which had a distinct name, as follows : 



Unci 



ia. 



12 

12 or 6" Sextans, 



T2 or 4 Q ua drans. 
Triens. 
Quincunx. 



T2 or i T r ^ ens 

5 
T2~ 



T ^ or ^ Semis, sem- 
bella. 

T 7 2 Septunx. 

T 8 2 or §• Bes, or bes- 
sis. 



T 9 2 or |- Dodrans. 
\ § or |- D ex tans. 
Deunx. 



ft 



906. — After the use of silver money, accounts were kept in Sesterces 
(Sestertii). This coin emphatically called nummus (money), was originally 
equal to 2 J- asses, as the name sestertius means. Its symbol was L. L. S., 
i. e. Libra Libra Semis, or the numeral letters, thus, IIS, or with a line 
across HS. Other coins were multiples of this ; thus, the denarius was 
equal to 4 sesterces, or 10 asses, and the aureus, a gold coin, was equal to 
25 denarii, or 100 sestertii. When the as was reduced in weight after A. 
U. C. 536, the sestertius was worth 4 asses, and the denarius, 16. 

907. — A thousand sestertii was called sestertium (not a coin but the 
name of a sum), and was indicated by the mark ns. This word was never 
used in the singular ; and any sum less than 2000 sesterces was called 
so many sestertii; 2000 was called duo or blna sestertia ; 10,000, dena 
sestertia ; 20,000, vicena sestertia, &c, up to a million of sesterces ; which 
was written decies centena millia sestertidrum, or nummdrum, ten times a 
hundred thousand sesterces. This was commonly abbreviated into decies 
sestertium, or decies minimum, in which expressions centena millia, or cen- 
ties millia is always understood. 

908. — The following table will show the value of the Roman as, in 
federal money, both before, and after, the Punic war, and of the larger 
coins at all times. 

1. Table of Roman Money. 



Before 536-2i 
After 







Before. A. U. 


After A. U 










536. 




536. 








D. 


cts. m. 


D. 


cts. m. 




Teruncius 


or 3 Uncice, . . . 




3.8 . 




24 


2 


Teruncii 


= 1 Sembella, . . 




1.1 




4.8 


2 


Sembella 


= 1 As, 




1 5.4 




9.6 


-2i 
-4 


> Asses, 
Sestertii 


= 1 Sestertius, . 




3 8.6 




3 8.6 


2 


— 1 Quinarius, or 














Victoriatus, 




1 7.3 




1 7.3 


2 


Quinarii 


== 1 Denarii, . . . 




15 4.7 




15 4.7 


25 


Denarii 


= 1 Aureus, or So- 














lidus, . . . 


3 


86 8.4 


. s 


86 8.4 


10 


Aurei 


= 1 Sestertium, . 


38 


68 4.6 


3S 


68 4.6 



KOMAN MONEY — WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



339 



2. Roman Weights, 



The Siliqua (equal to 4 Cus), . . 

3 Siliqiue = 1 Obolus, . . . 

2 Oboli = 1 Scrupuhmi, . 

4 Scrupiilce = 1 Sextula, . . . 
1-| Sextula = 1 Siciliquus, . 
1£ Siciliquus = 1 Duella, . . . 

3 Duelke = 1 Uncia, . . . . 
12 L'ncise = 1 Libra, . . . . 



Troy Weight 
Lbs. oz. dwt. grs. 

2.92 

8.76 
17.53 
22.13 

9.19 
20.26 
12.79 

9.53 



10 



The Drachma was 3 Scrupulae, 



3. Roman Liquid Measure. 

1 Ligiila, or Cochleare, is equal to . . . 

4 Ligula, = 1 Cyathus, 

1£ Cyathi, = 1 Acetabulum, 

2 Acetabula, == 1 Quartarius, 
2 Quartarii, = 1 Hemina, 

2 Hennnae, = 1 Sextarius, 

6 Sextarii, = 1 Congius, 

4 Congii, = 1 Urna, 

2 Urnae, = 1 Amphora, 

Amphorae, — 1 Culeus, 



.voirduj 


ms 


w% 


Lbs. 


QZ. 


drs. 
0.106 
0.320 
0.641 
2.564 
3.847 
5.129 
15.389 


~~ r ~ 


11 


8.668 


Galls 


qte 


>. pts. 

0.019 
0.079 
0.118 
0.237 
0.475 
0.950 




2 


1.704 


2 


3 


0.819 


5 


2 


1.639 


114 





0.795 



The Sextarius was divided into twelve Uncice, one of which was the 
Cvdthus, equal to a small wine glass. 



4. Roman Dry Measure. 

1 Sextarius (same as in liquid measure), 

8 Sextarii, = 1 Semi-modius, 

2 Semi-modii, = 1 Modius, 



Pks. galls, qts. pts 

0.950 

3 1.606 

— 1 3 1.213 



Roman Measures of Length. 

909. — The Roman foot (pes), like the as, was divided into r 2 uncne, 
different numbers of which were sometimes called by the same ^ames as 
those of the as ; viz.: Sextans, quadrans, &c. The measures less than the 
uncia were the digitus = f ; the semiuncia = ^ ; the siciliquus = J ; and 
the sextula = l-6th of the uncia; i. e. the pes, or foot, contained 12 uncia?. 
or 16 digiti, or 24 semiuncia?, or 48 siciliqui, or 72 sextula?. 



5. Table of Measures above a Pes. 



Yds. 



1 Pes 
1J- Pes 
H Pes 
21 Pedes 
5 Pedes. 
125 Passus 
8 Stadia 



= 12 Unciae, or 1 6 Dig: ts, 

= 1 Palmipes, 

== 1 Cubitus, 

= 1 Pes Sestertius,. . . . 

= 1 Passus, 

= 1 Stadium, 

== 1 Milliare, or mile, 



ft. 

.97 

1.21 

1.45 

2.42 

1 1.85 

202 0.72 

1617 2.75 



340 APPENDIX. 

6. Table of Land Measure. 

A. roods, poles, sq. ft. 
100 Pedes quadrati, = 1 Scrupulum, 94.23 

4 Serupiila, = 1 Sextula, 1 104.69 
1 1-5 Sextulae, = 1 Actus Simplex, 1 180.08 

5 Actus, or 6 Sextulae, = 1 Uncia, 8 83.65 

6 Uuciaa, = 1 Actus quadra tus, 1 9 229.67 
2 Actus quadrati, = 1 Jugerum (As), 2 19 187.09 
2 Jugera, = 1 Haeredium, ' 10 39 101.83 

100 Haeredia, = 1 Ceuturia, 124 2 17 109.79 

4 Centuriae, = 1 Saltus, 498 1 29 166.91 

The Roman Jugerum, or As, of land, was also divided into 12 Unciaa, 

any number of which was denominated as before, 905. 

VII. DIFFERENT AGES OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 

910. — Of the Roman literature, previous to A. XL, 514, scarcely a ves- 
tige remains. The Roman writers, subsequent to that period, have been 
arranged into four classes, with reference to the purity of the language at 
the time in which they lived. These are called the Golden age, the Silver 
age, the Brazen age, and the Iron age. 

911. — The Golden age extends from the time of the second Punic 
war, A. IL, 514, to the death of Augustus, A. D., 14, a period of about 250 
years. In that period, Facciolatus reckons up in all 62 writers, of many 
of whose works, however, only fragments remain. The most distinguished 
writers of that period are Terence, Catullus, Ccesar, JSfepos, Cicero, Virgil, 
Horace, Ovid, Livy, and Sallust. 

912. — The Silver age extends from the death of Augustus to the death 
of Trajan, A. D., 118, a period of 104 years. The writers who flourished 
in this age are about twenty-three in number, of whom the most distin- 
guished are Celsus, Villeins, Columella, the Senecas, the Pliny s, Juvenal, 
Quintilian, Tacitus, Suetonius, and Curtius. 

913. — The writers of the Brazen age, extending from the death of 
Trajan till Rome was taken by the Goths, A. D., 410, were 35 ; the most 
distinguished of whom were Justin, Terentianus, Victor, Lactantius, and 
Claudian. 

914. — From this period commenced the Iron age, during which the 
Latin language was much adulterated by the admixture of foreign word3« 
and its purity, elegance, and strength, greatly declined. 



APPENDIX. 341 

VIII. ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN. 

915. — For reasons stated in the note, § 2, the continental pronunciation 
of the Latin language, as presented in that section, is considered the best 
But since there are many who prefer the English, or Walkerian pronunci- 
ation, a brief statement of the principles by which it .is regulated is here 
introduced. In doing this it is necessary to state, and for the learner al 
ways to bear in mind, that the English accentuation and vowel sounds have 
nothing to do with the quantity of the syllables as established by the rules 
of Latm prosody. These indeed are often directly opposed to each other. A 
vowel which by the rules of English orthoepy is long, having both the accent 
and the long English sound, is short in Latin ; as pd'-ter, De'-us. On the other 
hand, a syllable that is short, being without the accent and having the short 
English sound, is long in Latin; as, am"-d-bd-mus, mon" -e-bd-tis. Wlien, 
therefore, a vowel is said to have the long sound, or the short sound — to be 
accented or unaccented, nothing is affirmed respecting the quantity of the 
syllable, as long or short. Here indeed there is an incongruity, but it is 
inseparable from the system. 

916. — According to this mode of pronunciation, the sound of a vowel 
or diphthong depends entirely on two things ; viz, the accent and the place 
of the vowel in the syllable. Again, the division of words into syllables 
depends, in a great measure, on the place of the accents ; and that again 
on the quantity of the penult syllable. Hence to present this matter fully 
and properly, we must reverse this order, and consider, 

I. The quantity of the penult syllables. 

II. The accent. 

III. The division of words into syllables ; and 

IV. The sounds of the letters in their combinations. 

(EJgf^For the division of letters into vowels and consonants, the combi- 
nation of the former into diphthongs, and the division of the latter into 
mutes, liquids, <fcc. ; as also for the meaning of the terms monosyllable, 
dissyllable, &c., penult and antepenult, and the marks for long, short, and 
accented syllables, see § 1. 

I. THE QUANTITY OF THE PENULT SYLLABLES. 

917. — For quantity in general, see the Rules, §§ 154-161 ; and particu- 
larly for penult syllables, §§ 156-159. The following are general, being 
applicable to other syllables as well as the penult, and are of extensive 
application : 

1. A vowel before another vowel is short ; as, via, deus. 

2. A vowel before two consonants, or a double consonant 
is long by position ; as, arma, fallo : axis. 

3. A vowel before a mute and a liquid (I and r), is common; 
i. e. either long or short ; as, volucris, or volucris. 

4. A diphthong is always long ; as, Caesar, aurum. 

Note. — When the quantity of the penult is determined by any of these 
rules, it is not marked ; otherwise it is marked. 



342 APPENDIX. 

II. THE ACCENT, 

918. — Accent is a particular stress of voice laid on a par- 
ticular syllable of a word, and marked thus ( ' ) ; as, pa'-te?*, 
an'-i-mus. Its place is on the penult or antepenult. 

919. — When a word has more accents than one, the last is called the 
primary accent, the one preceding it, the secondary, marked ( " ) ; pre- 
ceding that, is often a third, marked ( '" ) ; and sometimes even a fourth, 
marked ( "" ) ; and all of them subject to the same rules. These are as 
follows : 

920.— RULES. 

1. Words of two syllables have the accent on the first, or 
penult ; as, pa'-ter, mu'-sa, au'-rum. 

2. Words of more than two syllables, when the penult is 
long, have the accent on the penult ; as, a-ml'cus : when the 
penult is short they have the accent on the antepenult ; as, 
dom'-i-nus. 

3. When the enclitics que. ve, ne, are added to a word, the 
two words are considered as one, and it is accented according- 
ly ; as, pa-ter'-que, am" -l-cus' -ne, dom ,r -i-nus f -ve. 

4. If only two syllables precede the primary accent, the 
secondary accent is placed on the first ; as, dom" -i-nb ! -rum. 

5. If three or four syllables precede the primary accent, the 
secondary is placed sometimes on the first and sometimes on 
the second ; as, tol' ! -e-ra-biV -i-us, de-mon n stra-ban'-tur. 

6. Some words which have four syllables before the primary 
accent, and all that have more than four have a third accent ; 
and in longer words even a fourth; as, pab r "-u-la"-ti-o f -nis, 
pab !U, -u-la n -ti-on n -i-bus t -que. 

III. THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

920. — In Latin, every word has as many syllables as there 
are separate vowels or diphthongs. Hence the following — 

RULES. 

1. Two vowels coming together and not forming a diph- 
thong, must be divided ; as, JDe'-us, su'-us, au r -re-us. 

2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid (/, r) between 
the last two vowels of a word, or between any two unaccented 
vowels, are joined to the last ; as, ^a'-TER, aZ'-a-CER, aZ'-a-CRis, 
tor f -e-RA-bil r -i-us, per rrr -e-GRi-?id"-ti-d'-ms. 

Exc. But tib-i and sib-i join it to the first. 



APPENDIX. 343 

3. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid before an ac- 
cented vowel, are joined to that vowel, and so also is a single 
consonant after it, except in the penult ; as, i-nx'-e-ra, hom'4-//^. 

Exc. 1. A single consouant, or a mute and a liquid, after a, e, o, accented, 
and followed by e or > before a vowel, are joined to the latter ; as, sd-ci-us t 
rd-m-us, do-CE-o, pd-TRi-us. 

Exc. 2. A single consonant, or a mute and a liquid after w, accented, must 
be joined to the following vowel ; as, mu-Li-er, tu-Ti-or, Iu-bri-cus. 

4. Any two consonants, except a mute and a liquid coming 
before or after an accented vowel, and also a mute and a liquid 
after an accented vowel (the penult and the exceptions to Rule 
3 excepted), must be divided ; as, tem-por'-i-bus, lec'-tum, tern 1 - 
po-rum, met' -ri-cus. 

Also gl, tl, and often cl, after the penultimate vowel, or before the vowel 
of an accented syllable; as, At'-la,% At lan'-ti-des, ec-lec'-ta. 

5. If three consonants come between the vowels of any two 
syllables, the last two, if a mute and a liquid, are joined to the 
latter vowel; as, con'-tra, amJ' -pli-a' -vit ; otherwise, the last 
only ; as, comp'-tus, re-demp'-tor. 

6. A compound word is resolved into its constituent parts, 
if the first part ends with a consonant; as, AB-es'-se, sub'-i-U, 
ix'-i-tur, circxjm' -d-go. But if the first part ends withavow r el, 
it is divided like a simple word ; as, DEf'-e-ro, ml'-i-go, YnMs'-to. 

921. — These rules are useful here, only as a guide to the pronunciation 
in the Walkerian mode, the vowel sounds being always different when they 
end a syllable, and when followed by a consonant ; thus, dil'-i-go audprces'-to 
would be pronounced very differently if divided thus, di'-li-go and prce'-sto. 
though the quantity and accent would be the same in both. It is therefore 
manifest, that in order to correct pronunciation in this mode, it is necessary 
to be familiar with, and ready in applying, the rules of syllabication. 

IV. OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

922. — The sound of the Vowels. 

1. Every accented vowel at the end of a syllable has the 
long English sound; as in the words fate, me, pine, no, tube ; 
thus, pa'-ter, de r -dit, vi'-vus, to'-tus, tu f -ba. Ty'-rus* 

2. At the end of an unaccented syllable, e, o, and u, have 
nearly the same sound as when accented, but are sounded 
shorter; as, re'-te, vo'-lo, ma f -nu ; a has the sound of a in fa- 
ther; as, mu r -sa, e-pis f -to-la. 

Z ending an unaccented syllable, has always its long sound 
in the following positions : 



■ Y has he sound of i in the same situation. 



344 APPENDIX. 

1 st. In the end of a word ; as, dom'-t-ni. Except in tib-i 
and sib-i, in which final i sounds like short e. 

2d. In the first syllable of a word (the second of which is 
accented), either when it stands alone before a consonant ; as 
i-do'-ne-us, or ends the syllable before a vowel ; as, fi-e'-bam. 

In all other situations at the end of an unaccented syllable 
not final, i has an obscure sound resembling short e ; as, nob f - 
i-lis, rap'-i-dus, Yi-de'-lis, &c. 

3. When a syllable ends with a consonant,. its vowel has the 
short English sound, as mfat, met, pin, not, tub, symbol; thus, 
mag f -nus, reg f -nu?n, fin f -go, hoc, sub, cyg'-nus. 

Exc. Es at the end of a word, has the sound of the English word ease ; 
^Ji'-des, ig'-nes. 

923. — 2. The sound of the Diphthongs. 

JE and oe are pronounced as e in the same situation ; as, 
ce'-tas, ccet'-e-ra, poe r -na, ozs'-trum. 

Au is pronounced like aw, — eu like long w,— and ei, not fol- 
lowed by another vowel, like long i ; as, au'-di-o, eu r -ge, hei. 

Exc. In Greek proper names, au are separated ; as, Men" -e-la' -us. 

Note. — ua, ue, ui, uo, and uu, in one syllable after q, g, s, are not properly 
diphthongs, but the u takes the sound of w, 8-2. 

After g and s these vowels are often pronounced separately, or in differ* 
ent syllables ; as, ar'-gu-o, su'-a, su'-i, su'-us. 

Exc. Ui in cui and huic, has the sound of i long. 

924. — 3. The sound of the Consonants. 
The consonants are in general pronounced in Latin as in 
English. The following may be noticed. 

C before e, i, y, ce, ce, has the sound of 5 ; as, ce-do, ci-vis, cyg'-nus, Cat- 
sar, cce'-na ; before a, o, u, I, r, and at the end of a syllable, it has the sound 
of k; as, Cato, con-tra, car, Clo-di-us, Cri-to. 

Ch, generally has the sound of h ; as char'-ta chor'-da, chroma. 

G before e, i, y, 02, oe, has its soft sound like j ; as, ge'-nus, re'-gis ; also 
before another g soft ; as, agger. In other situations it is hard ; as in the 
English words, bag, go. 

Ch and ph before th in the beginning of a word, are not sounded ; as, 
Chthonia, JPhthia ; also when a word begins with mn< gn, tm, ct, pt, ps, 
the first letter is silent, or but slightly sounded; as, mne-mos' -y-ne, gud-vus, 
tmesis, Cte-si as, Ptol-e-mce'-us, paal'-lo. 

Other consonants in their combinations resemble so closely their sounds 
in English words, that further illustration is unnecessary. 



% 



TEXT BOOKS 

FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, 

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Elements of Astronomy ; with explanatory Notes and ele- 
gant Illustrations. By John Brocklesby, A. M., Professor in Trinity College. 
$1 25. 

From the Connecticut Common School Journal. 
We take pleasure in calling the attention of teachers and students to this truly ex- 
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bining in a high degree perspicuity, precision, and vivacity. In a word, it is the very 
best elementary work on Astronomy with which we are acquainted. 

This notice is echoed by a large number of academies, who are promptly intro- 
ducing the book. 

Elements of Meteorology; designed for Schools and Ac- 
ademies. By John Brocklesby, A. M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural 
Philosophy in Trinity College, "Hartford. 75 cents. 

The subject of Meteorology is of the deepest interest to all. Its phenomena every- 
where surround us, and ought to be as familiarly known to the scholar as his arith- 
metic or philosophy. Tbis work treats of Winds in general, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, 
Water-spouts, Rain, Fogs, Clouds, Dew, Snow, Hail, Thunder-storms, Rainbows, 
Haloes, Meteorites, Northern Lights, <fec. 

It has proved highly satisfactory in the school-room, and is now the established 
text-book in a very large number of our best high schools and academies, where the 
natural sciences are taught. 

It is highly commended by Prof. Olmsted, Prof. Silliman, Dr. J. L Comstock, 
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2 Farmer, Brace Sf Go's Publications. 

Views of the Microscopic World ; designed for General 

Reading, and as a Hand-book for Classes in Natural Sciences. By Prof Brockles 

by. $1 12. 

By the aid of a powerful microscope, the author has given us highly ii structive 
accounts of Infusorial Animalcules, Fossil Infusoria, Minute Aquatic Animals, 
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To those who are necessarily deprived of the aid of a microscope, and even to 
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The sections on the Animalcules, Infusoria, and Crystallization, are very beautifully 
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of these wonderful little animals, many of which multiply by billions in a few hours, 
are really very instructive. There is no better school library book in the world. It 
should be read by 'every man, woman and child. 

Human Physiology ; designed for Colleges and the Higher 

Classes in Schools, and for General Reading. By Worthington Hooker, M. D., 
Professor of the Theory and Practice of Medicine in Yale College. Illustrated with 
nearly 200 engravings. $125. 

This is an original work, and not a compilation. It presents the subject in a new 
light, and at the same time embraces all that is valuable for its purpose that could be 
drawn from the most eminent sources. The highest encomiums are received from 
ail quarters ; a few are subjoined. 

From Caleb J. Hallo well, Alexandria High School, Va. 
Hooker's Physiology was duly received. We propose to adopt it as a text-book, 
and shall order in the course of a fortnight. 

From the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 
We can truly say that we believe this volume is of great value, and we hope that 
the rare merits of the diligent author will be both appreciated and patronized. 

From B. F. Tewksbury, Lenoxville, Pa. 
I am ready to pronounce it unqualifiedly the most admirable book or work on the 
human system that has fallen under my notice, and they have not been few. If any 
one desires a complete and thorough elucidation of the great science discussed, they 
can nowhere be better satisfied than in the perusal of Dr. Hooker's most excellent 
work. 

An Introductory Work on Human Physiology, by Prof. 

Hooker, has just been published, designed for all persons commencing the study. 
Dr. Hooker's works seem to have taken their place decidedly at the head of all 
treatises on the subject of Physiology. They are rapidly going into seminaries and 
normal schools in all parts of the country/and the best institutions express their 
" delight at the result." 60 cents. 

A Comparative English-German Grammar ; based on the 

affinity of the two languages. By Prof. Elias Peissner, late of the University of. 
Munich, now of Union College, Schenectady. 

From the New York Churchman. 
Of all the German Grammars we have ever examined, this is the most modest and 
unpretending, and yet it contains a system and a principle which is the life of it, as 
dear, as practical, as effective for learning grammar as any thing we have ever seen 
pui forth, with so much more pretense of originality and show of philosophy. It 
will be found, too, we think, that the author has not only presented a new idea of 
much interest in itself, but has admirably carried it out in the practical lessons and 
exercises of his work. 

From Prof. J. Foster, of Schenectady. 
I have examined Prof. Peissner's German Grammar with some attention, have 
marked with interest the rapid advancement of students here using it as a text-book, 
and have myself carefully tested it in the instruction of a daughter eleven years of 
age. The result is a conviction that it is most admirably adapted to secure easy. 
pleasant, and real progress, and that from no other work which has come under my 
notice can so satisfactory a knowledge of the language be obtained in a given time. 



Farmer, Brace 4- Co's Publications. 3 

Whitlock's Geometry and Surveying, is a work for ad- 
vanced students, possessing the highest claims upon the attention of Mathematical 
Teachers. $1 50. 

In comparison with other works of the kind, it presents the following advantages : 
1. A better connected and more progressive method of geometrizinafe calculated to 
enable the student to go alone. 

•2. A fuller, more varied, and available practice, by the introduction of more than 
four hundred exercises, arithmetical, demonstrative, and algebraical, so chosen as to 
be serviceable rather than amusing, and so arranged as greatly to aid in the acquisi- 
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3. The bringing together of such a body of geometrical knowledge, theoretical and 
practical, as every individual on entering into active life demands. 

4. A system of surveying which saves two-thirds of tht labor required by the ordi- 
nary process. 

This work is well spoken of universally, and is already in use in some of the best 
institutions of this country. It is recommended by Prof. Pierce, of Cambridge, Prof. 
Smith, of Middletown, Prof. Dodd, of Lexington, and many other eminent mathe- 
maticians. 

From E. M. Morse, Esq. 

I consider that I have obtained more mathematical knowledge from Whitlock's 
Geometry than from all other text-books combined. Unlike too many treatises of a 
similar nature, it is eminently calculated to make mathematicians. 



PROF. J. B. DODD'S MATHEMATICAL SERIES 

comprises 

An Elementary and Practical Arithmetic $0 45 

High School Arithmetic 84 

Elements of Algebra 84 

Higher Algebra 1 50 

Key to Algebra 84 

Elements of Geometry 1 00 

These books are believed to be unrivaled in the following particulars : 

1. The philosophical accurateness with which their topics are arranged, so as to 
show the mutual dependence and relationship of their subjects. 

2. The scientific correctness and practical convenience of their greatly improved 
nomenclature. 

3. The clear and concise manner in which principles are stated and explanations 
are niven. 

4. Brevity and completeness of rules. 

5. The distinctness with which tha true connection between Arithmetic and its 
connate branches is developed. 

6. The excellent and thorough intellectual discipline superinduced. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 
From R. T. P. Allen, Superintendent of Kentucky Military Institute. 
Upon a careful examination of a manuscript Treatise on Arithmetic, by Prof. 
Dodd, I find it greatly superior to all others which have come under my notice, in 
system, completeness, and nomenclature. The arrangement is natural, the system 
complete, and the nomenclature greatly improved. These improvements are not 
they are fundamental — eminently worthy the attention of the mathematical 
teacher, and give a character of unity to the work which at once distinguishes it from 
all others on this subject. 

From C. M. Wright, Associate Principal of Mount Palatine Academy. 
I have examined Dodd's Arithmetic, and am fully persuaded that it is superior to 
any other with which I am acquainted. I could speak in detail were it necessary ; 
but all that is required to establish its reputation and introduction, is to have it 
known by teachers. 



4 Farmer, Brace Sc CVs Publications. 

From M. S. Littlefield, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
I have Dodd's Higher Arithmetic, and unhesitatingly pronounce it the best work 
for advanced classes I have ever seen. 

From E. Hinds, Esq., of Newtown Academy. 
I have recently adopted Dodd's High School Arithmetic, and like it much. Having 
seen that Prof. D odd is also author of an Algebra, I should like to see that work be- 
fore forming a new class. 

* From H. Elias, Esq., Palmyra, Mo. 

1 have fairly tested Dodd's Algebra, and am much pleased with it. If I like his 
Geometry as well as the Algebra, I shall forthwith introduce it into my school. 

From Prof. W. H. De Puy. 
We have introduced Dodd's Algebra into the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary as a 
permanent text-book. 

From R. H. Moore, III. 

Dodd's Algebra possesses excellencies pertaining to no other work. 

From Rev J. A. McCanley, Va. 
I am much pleased with Dodd's Algebra, and will introduce it. 

From Oscar Harris, N. J. 

I use Professor Dodd's Algebra, and shall continue it as our regular text-book. 

From Prof. A. L. Hamilton, President of Andrew College. 

I have examined with some care Prof. Dodd's Elements of Geometry, and, so far 
as I am capable of judging, I conceive it to be in many respects decidedly the best 
work of the kind extant. For simplicity, exactness, and completeness, it can have 
no superior. Like his Arithmetic and Algebra, in many important particulars, his 
Geometry stands pre-eminent and alone. 

A New Common-School Arithmetic, by Prof. Dodd, is in 

press. 

The Department of Public Instruction in Canada has repeatedly ordered Prof. 
Dodd's booiis, as well as many of F. B. &Co.'s other publications, for use in schools^ 

Schell's Introductory Lessons in Arithmetic; designed 

as an Introduction to the-study of any Mental or Written Arithmetic. It contains 
a large amount of mental questions together with a large number of questions to 
be performed on the slate, thus combining mental and written exercises for young 
beginners. This is a very attractive little book, superior to any of its class. It 
leads the pupil on by" the easiest steps possible, and yet insures constant pro- 
gress. 20 cents. 

From Geo. Payne Quackenbos, Rector of Henry street Grammar School, N. Y 
It is unnecessary to do more than to ask the attention of teachers to this work ; 
they cannot examine it impartially without being convinced of its superior merits. 
It will, no doubt, become one of the most popular of school-books. 

From J. Markham, Ohio. 

I wish to introduce Schell's little Arithmetic. It is just the thing for beginners 
Send six dozen 

From G. C. Merrifield, bid. 
I am highly pleased with Schell's little book, and shall use it. 

From D. F. Dewolf. Ohio. 
Schell's little book for children is a bean-ideal of my own, and of course it suits. 

From D. G. Heffron, Sup't. Schools, Utica. 

The School Committee have adopted Schell's Arithmetic for our public schools 
Send us three hundred. 



Farmer, Brace <$r Co's Publications. 5 

An Intellectual and Practical Arithmetic ; or, First 

Lessons in Arithmetical Analysis. By J. L. Enos, Graduate of the New York 

State Normal Schools. 25 cents. 

The same clearness and conciseness characterize this admirable book that belong 
to the works of Prof. Dodd. The natural arrangements of the text, and the logical 
mode of solving the questions, is a peculiar and important feature belonging to this 
book alone. 

From Prof. C. M. Wright. 

I have examined with care and interest Enos' Mental Arithmetic, and shall intro' 
duce it at once into the Academy. 

From Profs. D. I. Pinckney, S. M. Fellows, S. Searle, Rock River Seminary 
We have examined an intellectual Arithmetic, by J. L. Enos, and like it much 
We shall immediately use it in our school. 

Prof. Palmer's Book-Keeping; Key and Blanks. 67 cents. 

This excellent book is superior to the books generally used, because : 

1. It contains a large number of business blanks to be filled by the learner, such as 
deeds, mortgages, agreements, assignments, &c, &c. 

2. Explanations from page to page, from article to article, and to settle principles 
of law in relation to deeds, mortgages, &c, &c. 

3. The exercises are to be written out, after being calculated. In other works, the 
pupil is expected to copy, merely. 

Palmer's Book-Keeping is used in the New York Public Schools, and extensively 
in Academies, It is r commended by Horace Webster, LL. D., G. B. Docharty, 
LL. D., and a large number of accountants and teachers. 



REV. P. "BULLIONS' ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL SERIES, 

comprising 

Practical Lessons in English Grammar and Composition $0 25 

Principles of English Grammar LO 

Progressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing 15 

Introduction to Analytical Grammar 30 

New. or Analytical and Practical English Grammar 63 

Latin Lessons, with Exercises in Parsing. By Geo. Spencer, A. M. Half 
cloth, enlarged 63 

Bullions' Principled of Latin Grammar 1 00 

Bullions' Latin Reader. With an Introduction on the Idioms of the Latin 

Language. An improved Vocabulary 1 00 

Bullions' Cesar's Commentaries. 1 00 

Bullions' Cicero's Orations. With reference both to Bullions', and An- 
drew's, and Stoddard's Latin Grammar 113 

Bullions' Sallust 1 00 

Bullions' Greek Lessons for Beginners 75 

Bullions' Principles of Greek Grammar 1 13 

Bullions' Greek Reader With Introduction on the Idioms of the Greek 

Language, and Improved Lexicon 1 75 

Bullions' Latin Exercises 1 25 

Cooper's Virgil 2 00 

In this series of books, the three Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, are all on 
the same plan. The general arrangement, definitions, rules, &c, are the same, and 
expressed in the same language, as nearly as the nature of the case would admit. 
To those who study Latin and Greek, much time and labor, it is believed, will be 
saved by this method, both to teacher and pupil. The analogy and peculiarities of 
the different languages being kept in view, will show what is common to all, or pecu- 



6 Farmer, Brace $• Co's Publications. 

liar to each ; the confusion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the use of ele- 
ment -«ry works differing widely from each other in language and structure, will be 
avoided, and trie progress of the student rendered much more rapid, easy, and satis- 
factory. 

No series of Grammars, having this object in view, has heretofore been prepared, 
and the advantages which they offer cannot be obtained in an equal degree by the 
study of any other Grammars now in use. They form a complete course of element- 
ary books, in which the substance of the latest and best Grammars in each language 
has been compressed into a volume of convenient size, beautifully printed on supe- 
rior paper, neatly and strongly bound, and are put at the lowest prices at which they 
can be afforded. 

The elementary works intended to follow the Grammars — namely, the Latin 
Reader and the Greek Reader — are also on the same plan ; are prepared with special 
references to these works, and contain a course of elementary instruction so unique 
and simple as to furnish great facilities to the student in these languages. 

NOTICES. 

From Prof. C. S. Pennel, Antioch College, Ohio. 
Bullions' books, by their superior arrangement and accuracy, their completeness 
as a series, and the references from one to the other, supply a want more perfectly 
than any other books have done. They bear the marks of the instructor as well as 
the scholar. It requires more than learning to make a good school-book. 

From J. B. Thompson, A. M., late Rector of the Somerville Classical Institute, N, J. 
I use Bullions' works — all of them— and consider them the best of the kind that 
have been issued in this or any other language. If they were universally used we 
would not have so many superficial scholars, and the study of the classics would be 
more likely to serve the end for which it was designed — the strengthening and 
adorning of the mind. 

From A. C. Richards, Esq., Clay Co., Ga. 

We think Bullions' Latin Grammar, in the arrangement of its syntax and the con- 
ciseness of its rules, the manner of treating prosody, and the conjugations of the 
verbs, superior to any other. If his Greek Reader is as good as the Latin Reader, we 
shall introduce it. 

It is almost superfluous to publish notices of books so extensively used. 

Within the last few months Dr. Bullions' English Grammar has been introduced 
into the Public, and many of the Private Schools, the Latin School, the English 
High School, the City Normal School, of the city of Boston ; Normal Schools of 
Bridgewater and Westrield ; Marlborough Academy; cities of Salem, Newburyport, 
&c, Mas^. ; Portsmouth, Concord, and several academies in New Hampshire ; and 
re-adopted in Albany and Troy, New York. They are used in over seventy acade- 
mies in New York, and in many of the most flourishing institutions in every State of 
the Union. Also, in the Public Schools of Washington, D. C, and of Canada, in 
Oregon and Australia. The classical Series has been introduced into several col- 
leges, and it is not too much to say that Bullions' Grammars bid fair to become the 
Standard Grammars of the country. 



THE STUDENTS' SERIES. 

BY J. S. DENMAN, A. M. 

Cents. 
The Students' Primer 7 

" " Spelling-Book • 13 

*' " First Reader 13 

" * Second " 25 

" " Third " 40 

'* Fourth " 75 

" " Fifth " 94 

" Speaker. 31 






Farmer, Brace <f Go's Publications. 7 

The Publishers feel justified in claiming that the Students' Series is decidedly the 
best for teaching reading, and spelling that b is yet appeared. The plan of teaching 
includes, in the first steps, an ingenious and original mods of repetition which is 
very pleasing and encouraging to the pupil. The first books of the series are very 
instructive, and the later portions consist of fine selections, which are not hack- 
neyed. Prof. Page, late Principal of the New York State Normal School, said of ihis 
system: " It is tnc beat I evrr saw for teaching the first principles of Reading." 
Such testimony is of the highest value, and none need be afraid to use the books on 
such a recommendation. 

The numerous notices from all parts of the country where these books have been 
used, cannot be introduced here. They have just gone into the schools of Seneca 
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schools where they have been examined. 

From C. B. Crumb. N. Y. 

The Students' Series is, in my opinion, the best in use. I believe a class of young 
students will learn twice as r/ia:h, with the same labor, as they would from any other 
system. The books of this Series excel in the purity and attraction of their style 
I have introduced them. 



DB. COMSTOCK'S SERIES OF BOOKS ON THE SCIENCES, viz : 

Introduction to Natural Philosophy. For Children $0 42 

System of Natural Philosophy, newly revised and enlarged, including late 

discoveries 100 

Elements of Chemistry. Adapted to the present state of the Science 1 00 

The Young Botanist. New edition 50 

Elements of Botany. Including Vegetable Physiology, and a Description of 

Common Plants. With Cuts 1 25 

Outlines of Physiology, both Comparative and Human. To which is added 

Outlines of Anatomy, excellent for the general scholar and ladies' schools. 80 

New Elements of Geology. Highly Illustrated 1 25 

Elements of Mineralogy. Illustrated with numerous Cuts 75 

Natural History of Birds. Showing their Comparative Size. A new and 

valuable feature 50 

Natural History of Beasts. Ditto 50 

Natural History of Birds and Beasts. Do. Cloth 1 00 

Questions and Illustrations to the Philosophy 30 

All the above works are fully illustrated by elegant cuts. 

The Philosophy has been republished in Scotland, and translated for the use o 
schools in Prussia. The many valuable additions to the work by its transatlantic 
editors, Prof. Lees, of Edinburgh, and Prof, lloblyn, of Oxford, have been embraced 
by the author in his last revision. The Chemistry has been entirely revised, and 
contains all the late discoveries, together with methods of analyzing minerals and 
metals. Portions of the series are in course of publication in London. Such testi- 
mony, in addition to the general good 'testimony of teachers In this country, is suffi- 
cient to warrant us in saying that no works on similar subjects can equal them, or 
have ever been so extensively used. Continual applications arc made to the publish- 
ers to replace the Pnilosophy in schools where, for a time, it has given way to other 
booke. The style of Dr. Comstoek is so clear, and his arrangement is so excellent, 
that no writer can be found to excel him for s^hDol purposes, and he takes constant 
pains to include new discoveries, and to consult eminently scientific men. 

HON. Ji'^I^fS GEllilAPHICAX SEUIES. 
Ppimary G?eography ; with. Colored Maps. 25 cents. 
Quarto Geography ; with elegant Cuts, Physical Ge 

phy Tables, Map of the Atlantic Ocean, &c. 75 cents. 






8 Farmer, Brace $ Go's Publications. 

Olney's School Geography and Atlas. Containing An- 
cient Geography, Physical Geography, Tables, an entirely new Chart of the 
World, to show its physical conformation, as adapted to purposes of commerce, 
and also for the purpose of reviewing classes ; also a Chronological Table of Disco- 
veries. $1 12. 

Olney's Outline Maps. Of the World, United States, 

Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and Canada, with Portfolio and Book of Exercises. 

$6. 

All the recent improvements are included in Olney's Quarto and School Geogra- 
phies. They are not obsolete or out of date, but fully " up to the times." In ele- 
gance or completeness they are not surpassed. 

Mr. Olney commenced the plan of simplifying the first lesson, and teaching a child 
by what is familiar, to the exclusion of astronomy. He commenced the plan of hav- 
ing only those things represented on the maps which the pupil was required to 
learn. He originated the system of classification, and of showing the government, 
religion, <fcc, by symbols. He first adopted the system of carrying the pupil over 
the earth by means of the Atlas. His works first contained cuts, in which the dress, 
architecture, animals, internal improvements, &c, of each country are grouped, so 
as to be seen at one view. His works first contained the world as known to the An- 
cients, as an aid to Ancient History, and a Synopsis of Physical Geography, with 
maps. In short, we have seen no valuable feature in any geography which has not 
originally appeared in these works; and we think it not too much to claim that, in 
many respects, most other works are copies of these. We think that a fair and 
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and complete of any yet published, and that the Quarto and Modern School Geogra- 
phies contain more matter, and that better arranged, than any similar works ; and 
they are desired to test the claims here asserted. 

It is impossible to give here more than a fractional part of the recommendations, 
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Enough has been given to show the claims of the books to examination and use. 

All these works are made in very neat, durable style, and are sold as low as a 
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one- fifth off from the retail price, and postage paid. Large institutions are furnished 
sample copies without charge. 

FARMER, BRACE & Co. 

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